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Glossary
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- The glossary below defines significant terms from
our course. Additional terms will be added as they come up in the
reading and discussions.
-
- For
proper names of angelic and demonic beings, see Karel van der
Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst and Bob Becking, Dictionary
of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD), rev. ed. (Grand
Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), in the Reference
Room at Orradre.
-
- Some
of the following definitions have been adapted from John Corrigan,
Frederick M. Denny, Carlos M. N. Eire, and Martin S. Jaffee, "Glossary,"
in Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to
Monotheistic Religions (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, 1998) 494-508; Kenneth Cragg, "Glossary," in Readings
in the Qur'an (San Francisco: Collins, 1988) 356-65; and Donald
Senior, et al., eds., "Glossary," in The Catholic Study Bible
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) 425-39.
-
- adhan
- Arabic
for the call to prayer, sung by the muezzin
from a prominent location, such as a minaret.
-
- adoptionism
- A
second century C.E. Christian heresy which held
that Jesus was not the eternal son of God with God from the
beginning of time, but was rather "adopted" by God as divine
either at birth or at his baptism. Because
this belief is about the nature of Christ, it is a Christological
heresy (see Christology).
-
- akhlaq
- Arabic
for "ethics" (see the Hebrew/Jewish equivalent, halakah).
-
- Al-Aqsa
- Arabic
for "the farthest," referring in surah 17:1 to the sacred
sanctuary to which Muhammad was carried on his night journey,
usually understood to be Temple Mount
in Jerusalem. Also, the name of one of the two mosques on Temple
Mount today (see Dome of the Rock, Haram
al-Sharif).
-
- Al-Dhikr
- Arabic
for "the reminder, that which reminds," another title for the
Qur'an. Also, the discipline of the act of recollection.
-
- Al
Fatihah
- Arabic
for "the opening," the name for the first surah
of the Qur'an.
-
- Allah
- The
Arabic name for God.
-
- al-nakba
- Arabic
term for the dispossession, displacement and persecution of
native Palestinians that resulted from the creation of the State
of Israel and the 1948 War (a Palestinian
organization against the Israeli
occupation uses this as its name).
-
- Al-Rasul
- Arabic
for "the messenger," a title for Muhammad as the final messenger,
envoy, or apostle of Allah. The plural
rusul is used of other earlier prophets.
-
- amidah
- Hebrew
for "standing"; the main prayer recited three times daily while
standing.
-
- antichrist
- A
figure or figures mentioned in the Johannine literature who
masquerade as Christ or as Christian believers but who are portrayed
as devils in disguise. Their presence signifies the time of
the end before the return of the Messiah (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3;
2 John 7).
-
- anti-nomian
- Greek
for "against the law," a term applied to Paul by his Jewish-Christian
foes because of Paul's opposition to circumcision
and rigorous observance of kashrut
(Jewish dietary laws) for Gentile converts
to Christianity.
-
- anti-semitism
- A
modern European racist ideology that first understands Jews
as a race and second understands that race as inferior and degenerative
of cultures in which Jews are assimilated.
-
- apocalyptic
- Greek
for "revelation," a genre of literature common in social crises
or circumstances of persecution, characterized by: 1) a method
whereby a prophecy or event from the past associated with a
wise figure or religious intermediary (story)
is applied to the present day (discourse)
to render the meaning of the present chaos clear; 2) mythic
features such as a view of God as lord of history, a view
of time divided into two ages (the present evil age and the
future age of God's reign, a view of ethics that is sharply
dualistic, a view of the cosmos which is also binary, envisioning
a heavenly plane and an earthly plane with parallel histories,
and an esoteric language of visions and symbols that communicate
meaning; and 3) and a sense of urgency about time that
senses an imminent end of time. Biblical apocalyptic literature
flourished from 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.
-
- apophthegm
- Also
apothegm; a wise or pithy saying, a proverb (see the definition
of chreia below and a more
complete definition of apophthegm).
-
- apostle
- Greek
for "one dispatched or sent off, an envoy"; within Christian
circles this term came to mean one sent forth by God (or Jesus)
for a mission. The term or role is used within the New Testament
of the eleven disciples closest to Jesus who survive his death,
as well as Mary Magdalene (John 20:17-18), Paul (Gal 1:1) and
Junia (Rom 16:7), it came to be understood as a status proper
to bishops.
-
- Arianism
- The
Christological heresy that maintained that the Son of God, because
he was generated from God, could not be God, because God is
not a generated being (see Christology).
-
- Armageddon
- The
location of the final battle of earth's history as described
in the Book of Revelation. The name appears only once in the
Bible, and then in Greek, but is probably based on the Hebrew
for "mountain of Megiddo." Megiddo was a common battleground,
located as it was in a valley along the trade route between
Egypt and Mesopotamia (see Judg 5:19). Most notably, it was
the battleground where Pharaoh Neco's army killed King Josiah
in 621 B.C.E. (2 Kgs 23:29-30; 2 Chr 35:22; Zech
12:11).
-
- asceticism
- From
the Greek for "exercise, practice, training," rigorous physical
practices of abstention (e.g., fasting, vegetarianism, celibacy),
bodily afflictions (hair shirts, chains), or physical withdrawal
from society (cave-dwellers, stylites [people who sit on pillars]),
with the intent of ethical or spiritual purification. Ascetic
behavior represents a range of responses to social, political,
and physical worlds often perceived as oppressive or unfriendly,
or as stumbling blocks to (heroic) personal or communal goals,
lifestyles and commitments. The locus classicus for Christian
asceticism is 1 Cor 7.
-
- Ashkenazik
Jews
- Geographic/cultural
designation for Jews of central and eastern European origin
(see also Sephardic Jews).
-
- aya
(pl. ayat)
- Verse
of the Qur'an; also, a sign in the natural world or in prophetic
history by which humanity is alerted to the truths of Allah.
-
- ayatollah
- Arabic
for "sign of God," a Shi'ite title
of honor for the most prominent religious scholars in contemporary
(20th century) Iran.
-
- baptism
- A
Christian ritual understood to cleanse a person from sin and
initiate them into Christian life and community, possibly originating
in Jewish purification rituals.
-
- bishop
- A
cleric who oversees the administration of a diocese, an administrative
region of the church.
-
- bismillah
- The
invocation of the name of Allah in the form: "In the Name of
God, the merciful Lord of mercy." It precedes every act of Muslim
piety and every surah except surah
9.
-
- blessing
(beatitude, makarism)
- A
typical biblical form of speech that begins, "Blessed be…" (cf.
Matt 5:3-12 and a more complete description of the beatitude form at Literary Forms).
-
- caliphate
- Arabic
for the office of the successor or deputy (khalifa) of
Muhammad.
-
- call
narrative
- A
biblical form found in the prophetic books whereby God calls
the person to convey a message, usually set in the heavenly
court or its earthly equivalent, the temple. The four component
parts of a call narrative are the initial call, the prophet's
recognition of his/her unworthiness, a solemn commissioning,
and the characteristic message (see a more complete description
at Literary Forms).
-
- canon
- From
the Greek word for measuring rod, this refers among other meanings
to the rule by which something was judged, and particularly
to the official list of books judged to be authoritative scriptures
by a given community. The Protestant canon of the Old
Testament largely follows the Jewish canon. It is therefore
smaller than the Catholic canon, which includes several of the
extra books found in the early Greek translation of scripture,
the Septuagint (see Comparison of
Jewish and Christian Canons). The Eastern
Orthodox churches, which still use the actual Greek version
of the Old Testament, recognize all of the Septuagint's extra
books in their canon.
-
- cathedral
- From
the Latin for "seat," the principal church of a bishop
which contains his official seat (cathedra).
-
- catholic/Catholic
- "Universal."
Capitalized, it refers to that Christian church based in Rome
and led by the Roman Catholic pope and bishops.
-
- celibacy
- A
state of abstention from sexual intercourse.
-
- charisma
- Greek
for "grace, gift," understood in the New Testament churches
as one of several possible manifestations of the presence of
the Holy Spirit (e.g., wisdom, knowledge, faith, healing, mighty
deeds, prophecy, discernment of spirits, tongues, interpretation
of tongues; see 1 Cor 12:1-11).
-
- chreia
- A
story told or written to highlight and contextualize an apophthegm
(see the descriptions of chreia and apophthegm online at Literary Forms).
-
- Christ
- See
messiah.
-
- Christology
- The
branch of Christian theology that explores the person, nature,
and function of Christ. High Christology emphasizes the divinity
of Christ; its heretical extreme is Docetism, which argues that
Jesus only appeared human but was in reality completely divine.
Low Christology emphasizes the humanity of Christ; its heretical
extreme is Arianism, which argues that since God cannot be generated,
and Jesus was generated as a human, Jesus cannot be God.
-
- Chronicler
- The
post-exilic author or group of authors who revised Israel's
history in 1–2 Chronicles and compiled an account of the post-exilic
period in the Books of Ezra–Nehemiah.
-
- Church
of the Holy Sepulcher
- The
holiest shrine in Christendom which occupies the traditional
site of the crucifixion, death and burial of Jesus. Originally
located in a quarry outside Jerusalem's walls, the site is today
within the Christian quarter of Old Jerusalem.
-
- circumcision
- The
removal of the foreskin of the penis in males, performed ritually
within Judaism eight days after the boy's birth as a sign of
the boy's participation in the covenant
between God and the Jewish people (Gen 17:9-14).
-
- Conservative
Judaism
- One
of five main movements within contemporary Judaism. This movement
attempts to balance the Reform
and Orthodox positions, and considers
itself the conservator of historical Judaism. It is essentially
an American phenomenon (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
-
- cosmology
- Greek
for "study of the universe," any comprehensive system of understanding
and accounting for the universe and its movements.
-
- covenant
- A
covenant is an agreement between two parties. Covenants in antiquity
were diplomatic and economic in nature, much as today, and the
literary conventions of these ancient covenants were used to
portray the relationship between God and Israel. There are several
covenants in the Bible: with Noah (Gen 9), with Abraham (Gen
15; 17), with Moses (Exod 20), with David (2 Sam 7:8-17), and
through Jesus (Matt 26:26-30; 2 Cor 3:4-18).
-
- covenant
lawsuit
- A
form of prophetic speech in which God brings suit against God's
people for violations of the covenant they share; as such, it
includes elements reminiscent of the covenant treaty: 1. Summons
of witnesses; 2. Historical prologue; 3. Violation of stipulations
(charges/speeches by plaintiff, defendant, witnesses); 4. Uselessness
of cultic acts of worship, atonement; and 5. Invocation of covenant
curses (verdict/sentence; see a more complete description
at Literary Forms).
-
- creed
- From
the Latin credo, "I believe," a confession of faith;
in Christian tradition, any one of several prayers that affirms
basic Christian beliefs (some of the early Christian creeds are available online).
-
- Dead
Sea Scrolls
- A
group of over 800 manuscripts found between 1947 and 1956 in
various caves on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. The
bulk of the manuscripts were discovered in eleven caves near
a (probable) Essene settlement at Qumran, and include biblical,
parabiblical, apocryphal and sectarian writings as well as some
documentary texts (practice alphabets, deeds, contracts, letters).
-
- Deuteronomistic
History
- A
theological interpretation of the history of the people Israel
in their land, composed by the Deuteronomistic scribes in Jerusalem
as a religious explanation for and justification of the reunification
of Israel and Judah by King Josiah (640–609 B.C.E.).
It comprises the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1–2 Samuel
and 1–2 Kings, although Deuteronomist additions can be seen
throughout the Pentateuch and earlier
prophetic books (e.g., Amos 3:7). Central themes are that observance
of the law leads to possession of the land, and that God warns
the people through "his servants, the prophets," if their sins
jeopardize their safety.
-
- Deuteronomist
Writers (D)
- Scribes
in the court of King Josiah who composed the Deuteronomistic
History c.622 B.C.E. "D" (of "Dtr") is,
according to the Documentary Hypothesis,
one of the four main sources of the Torah
(Genesis–Deuteronomy).
-
- diaspora
- Greek
for "dispersion," most commonly used of Jews living outside
the land of Israel anytime after the Babylonian
Exile, but also used by other groups (e.g., the Palestinians
in an ironic reference to their dispossession by Jews).
-
- din
- Religion
and religious duties in Islam; also judgment. There are five
pillars of din: witness, prayer, almsgiving, fasting,
and pilgrimage (see Five Pillars of Islam). Medina, the city
where Muhammad first established a political system based on
Islamic law, literally means "the place of judgment."
-
- disciple
- Greek
for "one who follows," a term used in scripture for students
of a master.
-
- discourse
- The
literary critical term for structure and purpose of a narrative
or other literary work, which coexists with the story
told (events [actions, plot] + elements [characters, space]).
The level of discourse is the more subtle level at which the
author's judgment and interpretation operate.
-
- divided
monarchy
- The
two monarchies of Israel (north) and Judah (south) after the
secession of the northern King Jeroboam I. The northern
kingdom lasted approximately 200 years, until its defeat by
Assyria (c.922-721 B.C.E.). The southern
kingdom lasted a bit longer until its defeat by Babylon (c.922-587
B.C.E.; see also united
monarchy).
-
- Docetism
- From
the Greek "to seem, to appear," the Christological heresy that
Christ only appeared to have a human body; in reality, he was
completely divine and not human (see Christology).
-
- Documentary
Hypothesis
- The
theory that seeks to explain the duplications and contradictions
within the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy) by positing that four
sources or traditions lie behind these five books. The sources,
"J" (for Yahwist), "E" (Elohist),
"D" (Deuteronomist), and "P" (Priestly),
emerge in different parts of the country at different moments
in history, and thus reflect different perspectives (see CSB RG
47-8 and the chart online).
-
- Dome
of the Rock
- The
golden-domed mosque on Temple Mount
in Jerusalem that marks the third holiest site in Islam, the
site from which Muhammad ascended to heaven on his "night journey"
(surah 17). The site most probably stands on the exact
location of the Second Jewish Temple, destroyed by the Romans
in 70 C.E. (see Al-Aqsa,
Haram al-Sharif).
-
- ecclesiology
- From
the Greek for "the assembly of those called out, the church";
the study of the Christian church: its meaning, its relationship
to Christ, and its forms and structures.
-
- ecstatic
speech
- Speech
uttered in a state of divine possession, in which the human
being experiences inspiration or visions or transportation to
a supernatural sphere that transcends the human; from the Greek
"to stand apart from." This type of oracular speech is one of
the characteristic activities of the prophet.
-
- Elohist
Writers (E)
- Scribes
writing in the northern Kingdom of Israel after its creation
in 922 B.C.E. and emphasizing northern traditions
in opposition to the southern emphasis of the Yahwists.
This hypothetical group is so named because their texts use
the Hebrew 'Elohim for God rather than the tetragrammaton
("Yahweh"). "E" is, according to the Documentary
Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah
(Genesis–Deuteronomy).
-
- epistle
- Greek
for letter, an exhortation or written sermon intended for public
reading.
-
- eschatology
- The
branch of theology that is concerned with the ultimate or last
things, such as the end of times, judgment, death, heaven, hell
(from the Greek for furthest, uttermost, extreme, end, + logos
= word[s]).
-
- eschaton
- Greek
for "the end," the end of times which is regarded as immanent
in apocalyptic literature.
-
- Essene
- A
Jewish apocalyptic group associated
with the Dead Sea Scrolls that lived from
approximately 165 B.C.E.–68 C.E.,
when they were eradicated by the Romans. The Essenes advocated
a return to Torah, and some among their
number held property in common and advocated celibacy.
-
- eucharist
- From
the Greek "to give thanks," a central Christian ritual recalling
the Passover supper Jesus shared with
his disciples the night before he died; also, the bread and
wine understood by Catholics as consubstantial with Christ's
body and blood offered for human salvation.
-
- evangelist
- Greek
for "one who proclaims the good news" or gospel, understood
in Christian tradition to apply particularly to the authors
of the four canonical gospels.
-
- exegesis
- From
Greek "to show the way," the interpretation of scriptural texts.
-
- exile
- The
forced removal of the Judean elite to Babylon in the wake of
the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 B.C.E.,
and the period of approximately 50 years during which these
people lived in servitude in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
-
- exodus
- The
exit or escape of Israel from Egyptian captivity, recounted
in the book of the same name. The book in its final form dates
eight centuries after the events it describes (story
date c.1280 B.C.E.; discourse
date c.400s B.C.E.) and was compiled
from several sources, all of which factors complicate the historical
reliability of the account. CSB Map #2 depicts the
route(s) of the escape based on the Exodus account.
-
- fatwa
- Arabic
for a formal legal opinion or decision, given by one so qualified,
a mufti.
-
- Five
Pillars of Islam
- The
five religious duties in Islam: witness (shahadah), almsgiving
(zakat), prayer five times a day accompanied by ritual
prostrations (salat), fasting (saum and siyam),
and pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). Also called the five
pillars of din, or judgment.
-
- foil
- A
secondary character or characters whose actions, by strong contrast,
underscore or enhance the distinctive characteristics of another
character.
-
- form
- A
type of oral or written passage that can be isolated as a discrete
textual unit, with a clear beginning, an identifiable style,
and a standard ending. Often forms are repeated in a text for
rhetorical effect.
-
- form
criticism
- The
study of the structure, content and function of literary or
oral units. "Function" includes the Sitz im Leben, or
"setting in life," in which these forms would have originated
(for example, temple ritual, forensic argument).
-
- Gemara
- From
the Hebrew "to complete, finish," an explanation and expansion
of the Mishnah.
-
- Gentile
- A
non-Jew; common Jewish term of reference in antiquity.
-
- gnosticism
- From
the Greek for knowledge, any one of a number of dualistic ideologies
popular particularly in mid- to late-antiquity that espoused
a path of spiritual ascent through the secret, complex structures
of the cosmos and away from the evil material world. (see Gnosticism:
Resources for Study).
-
- gospel
- Old
English term for good news (godspell), a translation
of the Greek term for the same; a literary genre represented
in the New Testament by four books (Matthew, Mark, Luke and
John) and in the New Testament apocrypha
by sixteen other books. The canonical gospels tell the story
of the public life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They were
written between 65–100 C.E.
-
- hadith
- Arabic
for traditions told about Muhammad after the compilation of
the Qur'an. These traditions provide a second source for Islamic
law and practice (available online).
-
- hafiz
- One
who has memorized the entire Qur'an by heart.
-
- haggadah
- From
the Hebrew, "to tell or declare"; Jewish tales, anecdotes, and
other traditions about history or theology that appear in rabbinic
literature like the Talmud and the midrashim.
They are different from halakhic traditions,
which concern legal and ritual matters. In the absolute sense,
this term often refers to the retelling of the Exodus story
during the Passover seder ritual.
-
- hajj
- The
pilgrimage to Mecca
enjoined on all Moslems as the fifth pillar
of faith, and the ceremonies performed during the days of pilgrimage.
-
- halakah
- From
the Hebrew word for "walk," the "way" or "procedure" for acting
according to the biblical commandments and thus living an ethical
life. As part of oral Torah, these traditions
about legal and ritual matters appear in rabbinic
literature, and are to be distinguished from haggadic
traditions which concern historical or theological matters (see
akhlaq, the Muslim equivalent).
-
- haram
- The
sacred enclave in Mecca enclosing the Ka'bah,
the focal point of the hajj.
-
- Haram
al-Sharif
- Arabic
for "the Noble Sanctuary," the Dome of the Rock
mosque built on Temple Mount in Jerusalem,
the third holiest site in Islam from which Muhammad ascended
to heaven on his night journey (surah 17; see alsoAl-Aqsa).
-
- haredim
- Hebrew
for "tremblers, God fearers," a term used for ultra orthodox,
nationalist Jews in Israel.
-
- Hasidic
Judaism
- A
form of Judaism associated with messianic fervor and joyful
prayer, this popular movement originated in eastern Europe in
the 18th-19th centuries in opposition to the dominant academic,
rabbinic form of discourse. It
is now linked with Orthodox Judaism.
-
- Hasmoneans
- A
dynastic family of priests who governed Judah and Israel in
the wake of the Maccabean Revolt
until the Roman conquest (152–63 B.C.E.).
-
- Hebrews
- One
of the most ancient terms for the Israelites, used in Tanak
almost exclusively of the patriarchs and other figures who lived
before the united monarchy (c.1000
B.C.E.). The term may be related to the words
apiru, habiru, used in near eastern documents
in the second millennium B.C.E. to refer to a
landless class of nomadic peoples and escaped slaves.
-
- Hellenism
- The
graecized culture that spread throughout the Mediterranean world
in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great (d.323
B.C.E.) and remained prominent during the period
of Roman hegemony.
-
- heresy
- From
the Greek "choice," in religious vocabulary a choice for a teaching
about the faith which the dominant or orthodox church holds
to be contrary to that faith.
-
- hermeneutics
- From
the Greek "to interpret or explain," the science and methodology
of interpretation.
-
- heterodoxy
- From
the Greek "other or different opinion," any position that differs
from accepted teaching (see also orthodoxy).
-
- Hijaz
- West
central Arabia, where Islam first arose.
-
- hijrah
- The
emigration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca
to Yathrib in 622 C.E.,
the date on which the Moslem calendar begins.
-
- hypostasis
- Greek
for "substance," the term used to describe the unity of the
person of Jesus Christ in early Christological debate while
accepting his two natures, divine and human (see Christology).
-
- ijtihad
- "Reasoned
deduction," the principle by which laws established in the Qur'an
or the Sunnah are adapted to new circumstances.
-
- imam
- In
Sunni Islam, the leader of ritual
prayer; in Shi'ah Islam, the successor
and heir to "the light of Muhammad."
-
- iman
- Arabic
for "faith"; the doctrinal aspect of the Moslem faith, distinguished
from ritual practices (Islam).
-
- incarnation
- The
Christian belief that God became flesh (Latin in + carne)
in Jesus of Nazareth.
-
- incubation
- A
temporary period of habitation in a temple in anticipation of
divine revelation or in petition for a particular request.
-
- infancy
narrative
- The
story of the birth of Jesus, recounted in very different ways
by Matthew 1–2 and Luke 1–2. The infancy narrative is a standard
feature of the ancient literary genre of biography. Biographies
were reserved for important individuals, and in their infancy
narratives certain elements and motifs are standard (race, country,
ancestors, parents, phenomena at birth).
-
- intercession
- From
the Latin "to walk between," an entreaty on behalf of another;
one of the characteristic prophetic activities.
-
- irony
- The
use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning;
an expression marked by such a deliberate contrast between apparent
and intended meaning; incongruity between what might be expected
and what actually occurs.
-
- Islam
- Arabic
for "submission," the act of faith and surrender which defines
the praxis of Muslims. Also, the historic faith delivered through
Muhammad and the ritual practice in contrast to the doctrinal
system, iman.
-
- Israeli
- A
resident of the contemporary State of Israel, particularly a
citizen of that state (see also Hebrews,
Israelite, Jew).
-
- Israelite
- An
adherent of nascent Judaism during the period of the settlement
and united monarchy (c.1200–922 B.C.E.).
A citizen of the northern kingdom of Israel after it split off
from the southern kingdom of Judah (922 B.C.E.)
and until the destruction of Israel by the Assyrians in 721
B.C.E. Thereafter a metaphorical term for Jews
(see also Hebrews, Israeli,
Jew).
-
- jahiliyyah
- Arabic
for the state of ignorance prior to the revelation of the Qur'an
and the wildness associated with it. The term is also used by
contemporary Muslims to identify unworthy, nominal Moslems.
-
- Jew
- An
adherent of the Jewish faith, particularly after the exile
of Judeans to Babylon (see also Hebrews,
Israeli, Israelite).
-
- Jewish
Temple
- The
central place of worship and prayer in the biblical period.
Solomon built a huge edifice in Jerusalem in the mid-10th century
B.C.E. with the income from heavy taxes imposed
on the people. When the nation split after his reign, it was
partly because of this temple; northern Jews had their own shrines
(Shechem, Bethel, Dan, Gilgal), and had always opposed centralized
worship. The common people in both north and south also resisted
centralized worship: archeologists have discovered scores of
hilltop memorial shrines to ancestors, small temples to local
fertility and astral deities, and remnants of household shrines.
The Jerusalem temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587–586
B.C.E., rebuilt by during the restoration
(see Ezra and Nehemiah), expanded by Herod the Great in 37–4 B.C.E.,
and destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. Much
of biblical law treats the laws of worship and cultic sacrifices
that took place in the Temple (thanksgiving, atonement, free-will
offerings).
-
- jihad
- Arabic
for the struggle in the path of Allah. Its primary meaning is
the inward discipline in pursuit of well-being and prosperity;
only secondarily does it have the meaning of a struggle for
or defense of Islam. Some Moslems consider the call to jihad
to be a sixth pillar, but it does
not officially have that status.
-
- jinn
- Invisible
demons and spirits, some malevolent, some benevolent to humans,
capable of shifting shape and thus becoming visible to humans.
-
- juz'
- One
of thirty sections of the Qur'an, so divided to facilitate memorization
and recitation of the entire Qur'an in one month's time.
-
- Ka'bah
- The
cube-shaped stone shrine at the center of the great mosque
in Mecca around which pilgrims in the hajj
circulate in ritual ceremonies. The focal point of all Moslem
prayer, linked with Adam and Abraham (particularly his near
sacrifice of Ishmael). In pre-Islamic Arabia a center of worship
to pagan tribal gods, cleansed of idols by Muhammad when he
defeated the Quraysh in 630 C.E.
-
- kabbalah
- Hebrew
for "tradition," specifically the medieval Spanish tradition
of Jewish mysticism.
-
- kashrut
- The
system of Jewish dietary regulations that includes prohibitions
against certain foods such as pork and certain food combinations,
such as meat and dairy (Lev 7:22-27; 11).
-
- Levite
- A
member of the Israelite clan charged with responsibility for
Israel's worship. The Levites traditionally owned no land, but
took turns at Temple service and derived their income from the
offerings of money and food brought there. The Levites' cultic
functions included receiving and storing offerings, preparing
the daily sacrifices, and singing and instrumental accompaniment.
-
- list-genealogy
- A
biblical form in which one's kin are listed; may be either segmented
or linear. Segmented genealogies emphasize lateral relationships
between contemporary kin, while linear genealogies emphasize
the bloodline of a particular present descendent (see a more complete description
at Literary Forms).
-
- liturgy
- Greek
for "a work of the people," originally a public service performed
at an individual's expense; later worship services in general.
-
- logos
- Greek
for "word," a term that came to be applied particularly to Jesus
Christ as the divine Word made flesh.
-
- Maccabean
Revolt
- A
Jewish revolt led by Judas Maccabbeus (= "the Hammer") and his
family against the Hellenizing reforms of the Seleucid King
Antiochus IV (175-152 B.C.E.). Antiochus'
persecution of the Jews and their way of life prompted the composition
of the apocalyptic Book of Daniel.
-
- martyr
- Greek
for "witness," the standard legal term for observers at the
execution of economic transactions, legal affairs, and everyday
events. The term came to have the specialized meaning of "one
who testifies to the faith" in Jewish and Christian circles
during the persecutions of 200 B.C.E.–200 C.E.
(the period when apocalyptic literature
flourished).
-
- Mecca
- The
holiest city in Islam, due to the sacred enclosure of the Ka'bah
in its center to which Moslems make pilgrimage
(hajj). Muhammad was born in Mecca
and struggled with its leading families for years before migrating
to Medina, establishing an Islamic community, and defeating
the Meccans from there.
-
- Medina
- Originally
a city in Saudi Arabia named Yathrib, to which Muhammad migrated
in the hijrah, 622 C.E.
= 1 A.H. The first place where Islamic law and
community were established (Medina means "place of judgment").
-
- messiah
- Hebrew
for "anointed one," a kingly, prophetic, or priestly figure
envisioned during and after the Babylonian
exile as savior of the Jewish people who would restore their
political/religious autonomy. Applied by Christians to Jesus
("Christ" is the Greek equivalent of "messiah") and by Jews
throughout history to a handful of leaders (e.g., Simon bar
Kokhba, 132–135 C.E., Shabbatai Zevi, 1626–1676 C.E.).
-
- midrash
- From
the Hebrew "to interpret, to explain," the halakhic
or haggadic traditions transmitted as
an explanation or commentary on a biblical verse. There are
separate volumes of midrashim for each of the biblical
books.
-
- mihrab
- A
niche in the wall of a mosque indicating
the qiblah, or direction of prayer.
-
- millennialism
- A
Christian belief in the literal thousand-year period of peace
and well-being in the end times associated with the reign of
Christ and the binding of Satan, based
on Revelation 20:1-5. Various Christian groups debate whether
Christ's coming will inaugurate the thousand-year reign (premillennialists)
or conclude it (postmillennialists; the first coming was the
one that the New Testament recounts). Still other Christians
do not take the thousand-year reign literally (amillennialists).
-
- minaret
- The
English derivative of Arabic manara, or lighthouse, the
tower associated with a mosque from which
the adhan is chanted five times
a day.
-
- miracle
story
- A
biblical form of related the story of a singular occurrence,
usually a healing or a demonstration of power over nature. The
characteristic elements of the miracle story are the narrative
setting, the approach to the god, a description of the illness,
an announcement of the cure, and a public acknowledgment (see a more complete description
at Literary Forms).
-
- mi'raj
- Muhammad's
vision of his night journey to Temple
Mount in Jerusalem and from there through the heavens (surah
17).
-
- Mishnah
- From
the Hebrew "to repeat, do again," this refers to the "repetition"
or "second version" of the law, that is, a collection of legal
and procedural interpretations of the law codified by the rabbinic
academy of Yavneh c.200 C.E. It includes
some haggadic material as well.
-
- mosque
- The
Moslem assembly place for communal prayer.
-
- motif
- A
topos or element—a type of incident, device, or formula—which
recurs frequently in a work.
-
- Mount
Moriah
- The
traditional mountain where Abraham nearly sacrificed his son
Isaac (Gen 22), also considered in Jewish tradition to be the
Temple Mount in Jerusalem.
-
- muezzin
- Arabic
mu'adhdhin, the crier who calls Muslims to prayer by
means of the adhan.
-
- mufti
- A
qualified Muslim legal expert or consultant.
-
- New
Testament
- The
Christian name for the Christian scriptures, that is, for the
revelation about Jesus Christ. The term "testament" means something
that testifies or witnesses to something; in this case the scriptures
attest to God's relationship with the new Israel, those who
believe in the Christ. The shape and number of books in the
New Testament differ among the major Christian denominations
(see the online chart).
-
- New
Testament Apocrypha
- Greek
for "hidden," books of Christian pious literature that are not
in the Christian canon (available online).
-
- numerology
- The
study of the supernatural power of numbers and their influence
over human affairs.
-
- Old
Testament
- The
Christian name for the Jewish Bible, that is, for the revelation
that predates Jesus Christ. The term "testament" means something
that testifies or witnesses to something; in this case the scriptures
attest to God's relationship with Israel. The shape and number
of books in the Christian Old Testament differ somewhat from
the Jewish canon (see the online chart).
-
- Old
Testament Apocrypha
- From
Greek for "hidden," works that were included in the Greek version
of Tanak (the Septuagint)
but were not included in the Jewish canon.
Because these books were in the Septuagint, they came into Christian
Bibles. Many or all are considered canonical by Catholics and
eastern churches, while they are considered "deuterocanonical"
or simply as pious literature by Protestants (available online).
-
- Old
Testament Pseudepigrapha
- From
Greek for "false writing," works written by later authors in
the name of earlier biblical figures (available online).
-
- oracle
- From
the Latin orare, to speak or pray, a statement or prophecy
uttered at a cultic shrine through a recognized intermediary
(prophet, priest, shaman), often in the form of an enigmatic
statement or allegory.
-
- oral
Torah
- See
Torah.
-
- Orthodox
Judaism
- One
of five main movements within contemporary Judaism which began
in response to the rise of Reform Judaism
after the enlightenment (19th century). Reform Judaism had sought
to reduce the emphasis on law in favor of the spirit of Judaism;
Orthodox Judaism responded by emphasizing anew the importance
of the law (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
-
- orthodoxy
- From
the Greek "straight opinion," the accepted or dominant teaching
or position (see also heterodoxy).
-
- parable
- A
parable is a comparison drawn from nature or common experience
in life designed to illustrate some moral or religious truth.
It is a common biblical form in Tanak and
in the New Testament (see a more complete description
at Literary Forms).
-
- parousia
- See
second coming.
-
- passion
narrative
- An
account of the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus; probably
the earliest portion of the gospels to
be written. Passion narratives are found in all the canonical
gospels (Mark 14:1–16:8; Matt 26:1–28:20; Luke 22:1–24:53; John
13:1–20:31).
-
- passover
- The
event related in Exodus 12 whereby God delivers the Israelites
from captivity in Egypt by passing over their houses and slaying
the first-born sons of the Egyptians. Also, the annual ritual
recalling this event, and particularly the supper of symbolic
foods during which the story of Exodus
is retold.
-
- Pentateuch
- Literally
"five jars/scrolls," this is the Greek term for the first five
books of the Jewish Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy), known in Hebrew as the Torah
or instruction. Scholars now believe that the first four of
these books were compiled over centuries from and by four different
traditions, the Yahwist, Elohist,
Deuteronomist (responsible for
the entire book of Deuteronomy as well), and the Priestly
(see Documentary Hypothesis, and two
online charts, The
Documentary Hypothesis and The
Deuteronomistic History).
-
- pericope
- From
the Greek "cut all around," a discrete passage or story in a
literary work.
-
- pesher
- Hebrew
for "interpretation" or "commentary," a genre of literature
in which a contemporary interpreter provides commentary on every
verse of a given biblical book, applying the ancient prophecies
to his/her own time.
-
- Pharisees
- A
group of Jews who lived in the late Second Temple period and
advocated a democratization of Jewish ritual law so that the
common people could partake in the sanctification that priests
enjoyed. The Pharisees believed not only in written Torah,
but in their own interpretation of that instruction (oral Torah).
Their oral Torah included the extension of laws for priestly
separation to lay people, as well as a belief in resurrection
from the dead.
-
- pilgrimage
- A
journey to a sacred site or shrine.
-
- Pillars
of Islam
- See
Five Pillars of Islam.
-
- pope
- Latin
for "father," this refers to the leading bishop of certain Christian
denominations (e.g., Roman Catholic Church, Coptic Church).
-
- Priestly
Writers (P)
- Scribes
writing in the Jerusalem before and especially after the exile
(after 539 B.C.E.). This hypothetical group is
so named because their texts are concerned for rituals and cultic
legal matters. "P" is, according to the Documentary
Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah
(Genesis–Deuteronomy).
-
- prophet
- A
prophet is a religious functionary set aside or specially appointed
by (a) god for a number of religious and political tasks.
-
- Protestantism
- Term
applied to a variety of churches that broke with Roman
Catholicism in the sixteenth century over issues such as
the authoritative interpretation of scripture, church authority
in general, and religious practice.
-
- pseudonymity
- From
the Greek for "false name," the authorial stance of assuming
the identity of a more famous figure in whose tradition one
wishes to write; a common and accepted practice in antiquity,
though today considered plagiarism.
-
- "Q"
(Quelle)
- Abbreviation
for the German "Quelle," or source; a hypothetical source for
the Gospels of Matthew and Luke that contained the material
they share word-for-word that is not in one of their other sources,
the Gospel of Mark; it consists mostly of sayings of Jesus (see
synoptic problem, Two
Source Hypothesis).
-
- qiblah
- The
direction toward which Muslims face during the salat-prayer;
originally Jerusalem, but after the hijrah,
Mecca; marked in mosques
by the mihrab.
-
- Qur'an
- The
Arabic word for "recitation" or "reading," this term refers
specifically to the revelations received by Muhammad between
609–632 C.E. and codified by his followers between
644–656 C.E. These revelations are the sacred
scriptures of Islam.
-
- rabbi
- Hebrew
for "my great one, master, my teacher," a qualified teacher
of oral and written Torah.
-
- Rabbinic
Judaism
- A
form of Judaism in which Rabbis or teachers govern the authoritative
interpretation of written and oral Torah,
particularly in halakhic (legal, ethical)
matters. After the destruction of the Second
Temple and the consequent obsolescence of the priesthood,
rabbinic Judaism emerged as the
dominant (though not the only) form of Judaism, and continues
as such to the present day (see Chronology and Major Branches
of Judaism).
-
- rak'a
- A
cycle of postures during the salat-prayer:
standing, bowing, prostrating, sitting.
-
- Ramadan
- The
month during which the Qur'an was first revealed, commemorated
annually by Moslems with an obligatory fast during daylight
hours (saum, the fourth pillar
of Islam).
-
- rapture
- The
Latin equivalent of the Greek "ecstasy," standing apart from
oneself, the transporting of a person from one place to another,
especially to heaven, hence a technical term for the resurrection
of the just at the end of times, based on Revelation 20:4-6.
-
- Reconstructionist
Judaism
- One
of five main movements within contemporary Judaism. This group
split from Conservative Judaism
in New York in 1935. Under the impression that Conservative
Jews sought only to preserve historical Judaism, the Reconstructionists
sought to preserve the culture of Judaism as well (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
-
- redaction
- The
activity of collecting, arranging, editing and modifying sources
to adapt their message to new circumstances and the redactor's
theological perspective.
-
- redaction
criticism
- The
study of the theological perspective of a biblical text evident
in its collection, arrangement, editing and modification of
sources.
-
- Reform
Judaism
- One
of five main movements within contemporary Judaism. Influenced
by enlightenment rationalism (18th century), this group sought
to reduce the emphasis on the particular Jewish law in favor
of the more universal spirit of Judaism (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
-
- restoration
- The
period of return from Babylonian exile
and reconstruction of Judean society (539–c.450 B.C.E.),
reflected in the Bible in the work of the Chronicler
(1–2 Chr; Ezra–Nehemiah).
-
- Roman
Catholicism
- A
post sixteenth-century C.E. designation for the
Christian church that follows the Bishop of Rome. Seven Christian
denominations using an Eastern rite for their liturgy rather
than the Latin (western) rite are in union with Rome, although
they are not "Roman" Catholic; these are the Armenian, Byzantine,
Coptic, Ethiopian, East Syrian (Chaldean) West Syrian, and Maronite
Catholic Churches.
-
- Sadducee
- A
member of the priestly family descended from Zadok, one of two
high priestly families under King David; the chief priestly
family in the Jerusalem Temple from the time of Solomon to the
destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E.,
and one of the chief ruling parties in Jerusalem from the time
of the Hasmonean dynasty (146 B.C.E.
– 70 C.E.). The ancient Jewish historian
Josephus describes them as religious conservatives who rejected
any teachings outside of the Torah, such as
resurrection from the dead, life after death, and the existence
of angels (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism).
-
- salat
- The
ritual prayer of Islam with prostrations, practiced five times
a day; one of the five pillars of Islam.
-
- Samaritans
- Demographically
a group of people who lived in the former northern kingdom of
Israel, centered around the ancient capital of Samaria, who
after the Assyrian destruction and exile (721 B.C.E.)
had remained and intermarried with the non-Israelite peoples
transported to the region by Assyria. Religio-politically, a
conservative Jewish group that maintained the ancient paleo-Hebrew
script for their sacred writings (as opposed to the square script
introduced by foreign powers during Assyrian and Babylonian
hegemony), and, more importantly, who recognized only the Torah
as legitimate scripture (as opposed to Judean Jews, who had
expanded scripture to include the prophets and the writings).
The Samaritans have maintained their own temple and cult of
Jewish festivals on Mount Gerizim near Shechem from the late
fourth century B.C.E. to the present day (CSB RG
195–6).
-
- saum
- The
fast during the month of Ramadan, part
of the fourth pillar of Islam (see
also siyam).
-
- scripture
- Literally,
"a writing"; a written tradition vested with authority by a
community because it is understood to be sacred, holy, God-given.
-
- second
coming
- Also
referred to by its Greek equivalent, parousia (being
alongside, presence), the belief present in every strand of
New Testament tradition that Christ
will return in the future to establish fully the messianic reign.
-
- Second
Temple Judaism
- Judaism(s)
during the period from the restoration
to the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans, c.539 B.C.E.
– 70 C.E.
-
- Seleucids
- A
Syrian Hellenistic dynasty that controlled Palestine from approximately
200 C.E. until the Hasmonean
or Maccabean Revolt of 175–152 B.C.E.
The dynasty's attempts to enforce Hellenization
at the cost of Jewish law and tradition was the catalyst both
for the Revolt and for the composition of the Book of Daniel,
and seems to have played a role in the genesis of the Dead
Sea Scrolls community.
-
- Sephardic
Jews
- Geographic/cultural
designation for Jews of Spanish origin living in southern Europe,
North Africa, and the Middle East (see also Ashkenazik
Jews).
-
- Septuagint
- From
the Latin for seventy (septem [7] + ginta [decimal
suffix]), therefore abbreviated LXX, this is the name for the
main ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible with some
additional books, undertaken by Jews living in Egypt sometime
after 250 B.C.E. This was the premier version
used by early Greek-speaking Christians, and so became the basis
of the Christian canon. The name "seventy"
derives from a tradition that Ptolemy II (285–247 B.C.E.)
commissioned 70 or 72 elders to prepare the translation, a task
they accomplished in a miraculous 72 days.
-
- shahadah
- From
the Arabic for "witnessing," the act of confessing faith in
God alone and in Muhammad his prophet ("There is no God but
Allah and Muhammad is his prophet").
-
- shahid
- Arabic
for witness, the equivalent of the Greek "martyr."
-
- Shari'a
- The
corpus of divinely revealed Islamic legislation, based on the
Qur'an and the Sunnah.
-
- Shema
- Hebrew
imperative "Hear," the name for the twice-daily Jewish prayer
of adherence to the Mosaic covenant,
drawn from Deut 6:4-9; 11:13-21 and Num 16:37-41.
-
- Shi'a
Islam
- From
the Arabic shi'a, "party," the followers of Ali who became
the main minority community in Islam; they believe that leadership
within Islam should be based on the descendants of Muhammad
through the line of Ali and Fatima. One country in which Shi'ites
form the majority is Iran.
-
- shirk
- The
supreme sin of idolatry in Islam.
-
- similitude
- See
parable.
-
- siyam
- Fasting,
the fourth pillar of Islam (see also
saum).
-
- source
criticism
- The
identification and study of the different sources that lie behind
a text. Two famous source-critical hypotheses are the Documentary
Hypothesis (Torah) and the Two
Source Hypothesis (Gospels).
-
- story
- The
literary critical term for the story told — that is, the events
(actions, plot) and elements (characters, space) of a story.
The story level is distinguished from the level of discourse,
which is the structure of the story and the author's purpose
in telling it.
-
- Sufism
- The
mystical tradition within Islam, theoretically not restricted
to Sunni or Shi'a.
In reality its practitioners are sometimes regarded as a separate
group within Islam.
-
- Sunnah
- The
path or way followed by the faithful, also the custom of the
prophet Muhammad (see also Sunni Islam).
-
- Sunni
Islam
- The
majority group within Islam, "the people of the [Prophet's]
path or way" (see also Sunnah).
-
- surah
- Arabic
for "step" (see surah 3:3); a chapter of the Qur'an.
-
- synagogue
- From
the Greek "to bring or gather together" and thus "community,"
the organized Jewish communities of the Hellenistic
world and their places of worship.
-
- synoptic
gospels
- From
the Greek "with one eye," the three gospels
that tell the story of Jesus in largely the same way, sometimes
with passages that are identical word-for-word. These three
gospels are Matthew, Mark and Luke.
-
- synoptic
problem
- The
observation that, while the three synoptic gospels share much
material word-for-word, they are also significantly different.
The most accepted theories to account for this problem are 1)
the primacy of Mark; and 2) the Two
Source Hypothesis (see CSB RG 387; "Q"
[Quelle]).
-
- Talmud
- From
the Hebrew "to learn, study," the compilation of Mishnah,
Gemara, and further rabbinic
discussion of halakah and haggadah.
There are two Talmuds, one compiled in Palestine during the
300s C.E. (the Palestinian or Jerusalem Talmud,
in Hebrew Talmud Yerushalmi), and a more comprehensive
work compiled in the Babylonian academies from 400–600 C.E.
(the Babylonian Talmud, in Hebrew Talmud Bavli).
-
- Talmud
Torah
- Hebrew
for "the study of Torah," this refers to
the instruction, discussion and debate over the interpretation
of Torah that occurs in Jewish and rabbinic
schools.
-
- Tanak
- The
Jewish name for their scriptures; an acronym in which each of
the consonants represents one of the three major divisions of
the Jewish Bible: "T" for Torah or instruction,
law (including the biblical books from Genesis to Deuteronomy),
"N" for Nevi'im or prophets (Joshua–Malachi), and "K" for Ketuvim
or writings (Psalms–2 Chronicles). The shape and number of books
in the Jewish Bible differ somewhat from Christian canon; a complete chart of the similarities and differences is available online.
-
- tanzil
- The
incremental "sending down" of the Qur'an to the prophet Muhammad
(see surah 3:3).
-
- Temple
Mount
- The
artificial platform enlarged by King Herod (37–4 B.C.E.)
to accommodate a refurbished Second
Temple. The natural elevation with valleys on its eastern,
southern, and western sides was enlarged by extending retaining
walls on these sides and filling them with earth to create a
level platform 30 football fields in area.
-
- testimonia
- Lists
of "testimonies" or scripture passages drawn from Tanak
by early Christians that were seen as pointing or attesting
to the coming of Jesus Christ. These testimonies
were drawn largely from the prophetic books, but also from the
law and writings (see Luke 24:25-27, 32, 44-48).
-
- tetragrammaton
- Greek
for "four letters," the divine name in Hebrew. The four Hebrew
consonants for the divine name are not pronounced by Jews when
they occur in the biblical text. Instead, circumlocutions like
"Lord" or "the Name" are used.
-
- theme
- A
concept or teaching which a work is designed to emphasize and
make persuasive to the reader.
-
- theodicy
- From
the Greek "justice of God" or "justifying God," the problem
of and attempt to explain the existence of evil and suffering
alongside the assertion of a just and loving God (see CSB RG
237).
-
- theology
- From
the Greek "words about God," the science or study of God.
-
- Torah
- The
Hebrew word for instruction, this term designates in its narrowest
sense the first five books of the Jewish Bible (Genesis to Deuteronomy),
and in its broadest sense authoritative teaching of whatever
source. Rabbinic tradition distinguishes
between God's revealed instruction disclosed preeminently in
scripture (the written Torah) and the subsequent interpretive
tradition of that revelation (oral Torah, some of which has
been compiled in written sources like the Mishnah,
the Gemara, the Talmud,
etc.).
-
- tradition
- The
beliefs, customs, stories, laws, religious practices, and other
cultural phenomena that are considered valuable and are therefore
handed on from generation to generation. The Jewish and Christian
Bibles are a collation of traditions; once written, they themselves
become an artifact that must be interpreted, and so new traditions
are born.
-
- Trinity
- The
Godhead in Christian belief, one God revealed in three persons,
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
-
- Two
Source Hypothesis
- The
theory that the authors of Matthew and Luke used two shared
sources for their gospels, the Gospel
of Mark and ""Q" (sayings of Jesus), in
addition to their own unique material. The theory is one way
of accounting for the synoptic problem.
-
- ummah
- The
Muslim community or nation in their unity beyond any tribal
or national affiliations, that is, the worldwide community that
submits to Islam.
-
- Umm
al-Kitab
- Arabic
for "the mother of the book," the eternal counterpart of the
written, earthly Qur'an.
-
- united
monarchy
- The
monarchy of a united Israel under Kings David and Solomon (c.1000-922
B.C.E.; see also divided
monarchy).
-
- vision
report
- A
typical form of prophetic speech, an autobiographical report
of the prophet's experience of divine revelation in the form
of something seen. The characteristic elements of the vision
report are the introductory report, the description of the scene
envisioned, and a question/answer between the prophet and one
of the envisioned (usually heavenly) beings (see a more complete description at Literary Forms).
-
- wahy
- The
state of inspiration in which revelations came to Muhammad.
-
- Western
Wall
- The
western retaining wall of Temple Mount
in Jerusalem, built by Herod the Great (37–4 B.C.E.).
Because it was for centuries one of the few remaining visible
vestiges of the Jewish Temple, it was and is a revered center
for Jewish pilgrimage.
-
- written
Torah
- See
Torah.
-
- Yahwist
Writers (J)
- Scribes
writing in the southern Kingdom of Judah during and after the
united monarchy (1000–922 B.C.E.)
and emphasizing southern traditions such as the centrality of
Jerusalem. This hypothetical group is so named because their
texts use the tetragrammaton for God's name ("Yahweh") rather
than the Hebrew 'Elohim found in the Elohist
source. "J" (because the German scholar who developed this theory
referred to the group with the German name "Jahwist") is, according
to the Documentary Hypothesis, one
of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
-
- yeshiva
- From
Hebrew "sitting," a Jewish religious academy.
-
- zakat
- Almsgiving
in Islam, the third pillar of Islam.
-
- zealot
- A
Jew committed to rebellion and guerrilla warfare or terrorist
activity against the Romans, c.63 B.C.E.–70 C.E.
-
- Zion
- Another
name for Jerusalem, used most often in poetic literature like
the Psalms.
-
- Zionism
- A
modern movement of Jewish national self-determination, founded
by European Jews in the last decades of the nineteenth century
in response to the rise of nationalism in Europe and the persistence
of anti-Semitism even after the
Enlightenment and the consequent legal emancipation of Jews.
With the Holocaust and the U.N. creation of the State of Israel
in 1947–1948, the Zionist vision became reality.
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- Zionist
- An
advocate of Zionism. Also, a derogatory term synonymous with
"Israeli" used by some Arabs; it implies
the wrongful presence of Israel in Arab land.
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