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The glossary below defines significant terms from our course. Additional terms will be added as they come up in the reading and discussions.
 
For proper names of angelic and demonic beings, see Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst and Bob Becking, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD), rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), in the Reference Room at Orradre.
 
Some of the following definitions have been adapted from John Corrigan, Frederick M. Denny, Carlos M. N. Eire, and Martin S. Jaffee, "Glossary," in Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998) 494-508; Kenneth Cragg, "Glossary," in Readings in the Qur'an (San Francisco: Collins, 1988) 356-65; and Donald Senior, et al., eds., "Glossary," in The Catholic Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) 425-39.
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adhan
Arabic for the call to prayer, sung by the muezzin from a prominent location, such as a minaret.
 
adoptionism
A second century C.E. Christian heresy which held that Jesus was not the eternal son of God with God from the beginning of time, but was rather "adopted" by God as divine either at birth or at his baptism. Because this belief is about the nature of Christ, it is a Christological heresy (see Christology).
 
akhlaq
Arabic for "ethics" (see the Hebrew/Jewish equivalent, halakah).
 
Al-Aqsa
Arabic for "the farthest," referring in surah 17:1 to the sacred sanctuary to which Muhammad was carried on his night journey, usually understood to be Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Also, the name of one of the two mosques on Temple Mount today (see Dome of the Rock, Haram al-Sharif).
 
Al-Dhikr
Arabic for "the reminder, that which reminds," another title for the Qur'an. Also, the discipline of the act of recollection.
 
Al Fatihah
Arabic for "the opening," the name for the first surah of the Qur'an.
 
Allah
The Arabic name for God.
 
al-nakba
Arabic term for the dispossession, displacement and persecution of native Palestinians that resulted from the creation of the State of Israel and the 1948 War (a Palestinian organization against the Israeli occupation uses this as its name).
 
Al-Rasul
Arabic for "the messenger," a title for Muhammad as the final messenger, envoy, or apostle of Allah. The plural rusul is used of other earlier prophets.
 
amidah
Hebrew for "standing"; the main prayer recited three times daily while standing.
 
antichrist
A figure or figures mentioned in the Johannine literature who masquerade as Christ or as Christian believers but who are portrayed as devils in disguise. Their presence signifies the time of the end before the return of the Messiah (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John 7).
 
anti-nomian
Greek for "against the law," a term applied to Paul by his Jewish-Christian foes because of Paul's opposition to circumcision and rigorous observance of kashrut (Jewish dietary laws) for Gentile converts to Christianity.
 
anti-semitism
A modern European racist ideology that first understands Jews as a race and second understands that race as inferior and degenerative of cultures in which Jews are assimilated.
 
apocalyptic
Greek for "revelation," a genre of literature common in social crises or circumstances of persecution, characterized by: 1) a method whereby a prophecy or event from the past associated with a wise figure or religious intermediary (story) is applied to the present day (discourse) to render the meaning of the present chaos clear; 2) mythic features such as a view of God as lord of history, a view of time divided into two ages (the present evil age and the future age of God's reign, a view of ethics that is sharply dualistic, a view of the cosmos which is also binary, envisioning a heavenly plane and an earthly plane with parallel histories, and an esoteric language of visions and symbols that communicate meaning; and 3) and a sense of urgency about time that senses an imminent end of time. Biblical apocalyptic literature flourished from 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.
 
apophthegm
Also apothegm; a wise or pithy saying, a proverb (see the definition of chreia below and a more complete definition of apophthegm).
 
apostle
Greek for "one dispatched or sent off, an envoy"; within Christian circles this term came to mean one sent forth by God (or Jesus) for a mission. The term or role is used within the New Testament of the eleven disciples closest to Jesus who survive his death, as well as Mary Magdalene (John 20:17-18), Paul (Gal 1:1) and Junia (Rom 16:7), it came to be understood as a status proper to bishops.
 
Arianism
The Christological heresy that maintained that the Son of God, because he was generated from God, could not be God, because God is not a generated being (see Christology).
 
Armageddon
The location of the final battle of earth's history as described in the Book of Revelation. The name appears only once in the Bible, and then in Greek, but is probably based on the Hebrew for "mountain of Megiddo." Megiddo was a common battleground, located as it was in a valley along the trade route between Egypt and Mesopotamia (see Judg 5:19). Most notably, it was the battleground where Pharaoh Neco's army killed King Josiah in 621 B.C.E. (2 Kgs 23:29-30; 2 Chr 35:22; Zech 12:11).
 
asceticism
From the Greek for "exercise, practice, training," rigorous physical practices of abstention (e.g., fasting, vegetarianism, celibacy), bodily afflictions (hair shirts, chains), or physical withdrawal from society (cave-dwellers, stylites [people who sit on pillars]), with the intent of ethical or spiritual purification. Ascetic behavior represents a range of responses to social, political, and physical worlds often perceived as oppressive or unfriendly, or as stumbling blocks to (heroic) personal or communal goals, lifestyles and commitments. The locus classicus for Christian asceticism is 1 Cor 7.
 
Ashkenazik Jews
Geographic/cultural designation for Jews of central and eastern European origin (see also Sephardic Jews).
 
aya (pl. ayat)
Verse of the Qur'an; also, a sign in the natural world or in prophetic history by which humanity is alerted to the truths of Allah.
 
ayatollah
Arabic for "sign of God," a Shi'ite title of honor for the most prominent religious scholars in contemporary (20th century) Iran.
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baptism
A Christian ritual understood to cleanse a person from sin and initiate them into Christian life and community, possibly originating in Jewish purification rituals.
 
bishop
A cleric who oversees the administration of a diocese, an administrative region of the church.
 
bismillah
The invocation of the name of Allah in the form: "In the Name of God, the merciful Lord of mercy." It precedes every act of Muslim piety and every surah except surah 9.
 
blessing (beatitude, makarism)
A typical biblical form of speech that begins, "Blessed be…" (cf. Matt 5:3-12 and a more complete description of the beatitude form at Literary Forms).
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caliphate
Arabic for the office of the successor or deputy (khalifa) of Muhammad.
 
call narrative
A biblical form found in the prophetic books whereby God calls the person to convey a message, usually set in the heavenly court or its earthly equivalent, the temple. The four component parts of a call narrative are the initial call, the prophet's recognition of his/her unworthiness, a solemn commissioning, and the characteristic message (see a more complete description at Literary Forms).
 
canon
From the Greek word for measuring rod, this refers among other meanings to the rule by which something was judged, and particularly to the official list of books judged to be authoritative scriptures by a given community. The Protestant canon of the Old Testament largely follows the Jewish canon. It is therefore smaller than the Catholic canon, which includes several of the extra books found in the early Greek translation of scripture, the Septuagint (see Comparison of Jewish and Christian Canons). The Eastern Orthodox churches, which still use the actual Greek version of the Old Testament, recognize all of the Septuagint's extra books in their canon.
 
cathedral
From the Latin for "seat," the principal church of a bishop which contains his official seat (cathedra).
 
catholic/Catholic
"Universal." Capitalized, it refers to that Christian church based in Rome and led by the Roman Catholic pope and bishops.
 
celibacy
A state of abstention from sexual intercourse.
 
charisma
Greek for "grace, gift," understood in the New Testament churches as one of several possible manifestations of the presence of the Holy Spirit (e.g., wisdom, knowledge, faith, healing, mighty deeds, prophecy, discernment of spirits, tongues, interpretation of tongues; see 1 Cor 12:1-11).
 
chreia
A story told or written to highlight and contextualize an apophthegm (see the descriptions of chreia and apophthegm online at Literary Forms).
 
Christ
See messiah.
 
Christology
The branch of Christian theology that explores the person, nature, and function of Christ. High Christology emphasizes the divinity of Christ; its heretical extreme is Docetism, which argues that Jesus only appeared human but was in reality completely divine. Low Christology emphasizes the humanity of Christ; its heretical extreme is Arianism, which argues that since God cannot be generated, and Jesus was generated as a human, Jesus cannot be God.
 
Chronicler
The post-exilic author or group of authors who revised Israel's history in 1–2 Chronicles and compiled an account of the post-exilic period in the Books of Ezra–Nehemiah.
 
Church of the Holy Sepulcher
The holiest shrine in Christendom which occupies the traditional site of the crucifixion, death and burial of Jesus. Originally located in a quarry outside Jerusalem's walls, the site is today within the Christian quarter of Old Jerusalem.
 
circumcision
The removal of the foreskin of the penis in males, performed ritually within Judaism eight days after the boy's birth as a sign of the boy's participation in the covenant between God and the Jewish people (Gen 17:9-14).
 
Conservative Judaism
One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism. This movement attempts to balance the Reform and Orthodox positions, and considers itself the conservator of historical Judaism. It is essentially an American phenomenon (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism).
 
cosmology
Greek for "study of the universe," any comprehensive system of understanding and accounting for the universe and its movements.
 
covenant
A covenant is an agreement between two parties. Covenants in antiquity were diplomatic and economic in nature, much as today, and the literary conventions of these ancient covenants were used to portray the relationship between God and Israel. There are several covenants in the Bible: with Noah (Gen 9), with Abraham (Gen 15; 17), with Moses (Exod 20), with David (2 Sam 7:8-17), and through Jesus (Matt 26:26-30; 2 Cor 3:4-18).
 
covenant lawsuit
A form of prophetic speech in which God brings suit against God's people for violations of the covenant they share; as such, it includes elements reminiscent of the covenant treaty: 1. Summons of witnesses; 2. Historical prologue; 3. Violation of stipulations (charges/speeches by plaintiff, defendant, witnesses); 4. Uselessness of cultic acts of worship, atonement; and 5. Invocation of covenant curses (verdict/sentence; see a more complete description at Literary Forms).
 
creed
From the Latin credo, "I believe," a confession of faith; in Christian tradition, any one of several prayers that affirms basic Christian beliefs (some of the early Christian creeds are available online).
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Dead Sea Scrolls
A group of over 800 manuscripts found between 1947 and 1956 in various caves on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. The bulk of the manuscripts were discovered in eleven caves near a (probable) Essene settlement at Qumran, and include biblical, parabiblical, apocryphal and sectarian writings as well as some documentary texts (practice alphabets, deeds, contracts, letters).
 
Deuteronomistic History
A theological interpretation of the history of the people Israel in their land, composed by the Deuteronomistic scribes in Jerusalem as a religious explanation for and justification of the reunification of Israel and Judah by King Josiah (640–609 B.C.E.). It comprises the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings, although Deuteronomist additions can be seen throughout the Pentateuch and earlier prophetic books (e.g., Amos 3:7). Central themes are that observance of the law leads to possession of the land, and that God warns the people through "his servants, the prophets," if their sins jeopardize their safety.
 
Deuteronomist Writers (D)
Scribes in the court of King Josiah who composed the Deuteronomistic History c.622 B.C.E. "D" (of "Dtr") is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
 
diaspora
Greek for "dispersion," most commonly used of Jews living outside the land of Israel anytime after the Babylonian Exile, but also used by other groups (e.g., the Palestinians in an ironic reference to their dispossession by Jews).
 
din
Religion and religious duties in Islam; also judgment. There are five pillars of din: witness, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage (see Five Pillars of Islam). Medina, the city where Muhammad first established a political system based on Islamic law, literally means "the place of judgment."
 
disciple
Greek for "one who follows," a term used in scripture for students of a master.
 
discourse
The literary critical term for structure and purpose of a narrative or other literary work, which coexists with the story told (events [actions, plot] + elements [characters, space]). The level of discourse is the more subtle level at which the author's judgment and interpretation operate.
 
divided monarchy
The two monarchies of Israel (north) and Judah (south) after the secession of the northern King Jeroboam I. The northern kingdom lasted approximately 200 years, until its defeat by Assyria (c.922-721 B.C.E.). The southern kingdom lasted a bit longer until its defeat by Babylon (c.922-587 B.C.E.; see also united monarchy).
 
Docetism
From the Greek "to seem, to appear," the Christological heresy that Christ only appeared to have a human body; in reality, he was completely divine and not human (see Christology).
 
Documentary Hypothesis
The theory that seeks to explain the duplications and contradictions within the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy) by positing that four sources or traditions lie behind these five books. The sources, "J" (for Yahwist), "E" (Elohist), "D" (Deuteronomist), and "P" (Priestly), emerge in different parts of the country at different moments in history, and thus reflect different perspectives (see CSB RG 47-8 and the chart online).
 
Dome of the Rock
The golden-domed mosque on Temple Mount in Jerusalem that marks the third holiest site in Islam, the site from which Muhammad ascended to heaven on his "night journey" (surah 17). The site most probably stands on the exact location of the Second Jewish Temple, destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. (see Al-Aqsa, Haram al-Sharif).
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ecclesiology
From the Greek for "the assembly of those called out, the church"; the study of the Christian church: its meaning, its relationship to Christ, and its forms and structures.
 
ecstatic speech
Speech uttered in a state of divine possession, in which the human being experiences inspiration or visions or transportation to a supernatural sphere that transcends the human; from the Greek "to stand apart from." This type of oracular speech is one of the characteristic activities of the prophet.
 
Elohist Writers (E)
Scribes writing in the northern Kingdom of Israel after its creation in 922 B.C.E. and emphasizing northern traditions in opposition to the southern emphasis of the Yahwists. This hypothetical group is so named because their texts use the Hebrew 'Elohim for God rather than the tetragrammaton ("Yahweh"). "E" is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
 
epistle
Greek for letter, an exhortation or written sermon intended for public reading.
 
eschatology
The branch of theology that is concerned with the ultimate or last things, such as the end of times, judgment, death, heaven, hell (from the Greek for furthest, uttermost, extreme, end, + logos = word[s]).
 
eschaton
Greek for "the end," the end of times which is regarded as immanent in apocalyptic literature.
 
Essene
A Jewish apocalyptic group associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls that lived from approximately 165 B.C.E.–68 C.E., when they were eradicated by the Romans. The Essenes advocated a return to Torah, and some among their number held property in common and advocated celibacy.
 
eucharist
From the Greek "to give thanks," a central Christian ritual recalling the Passover supper Jesus shared with his disciples the night before he died; also, the bread and wine understood by Catholics as consubstantial with Christ's body and blood offered for human salvation.
 
evangelist
Greek for "one who proclaims the good news" or gospel, understood in Christian tradition to apply particularly to the authors of the four canonical gospels.
 
exegesis
From Greek "to show the way," the interpretation of scriptural texts.
 
exile
The forced removal of the Judean elite to Babylon in the wake of the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 B.C.E., and the period of approximately 50 years during which these people lived in servitude in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
 
exodus
The exit or escape of Israel from Egyptian captivity, recounted in the book of the same name. The book in its final form dates eight centuries after the events it describes (story date c.1280 B.C.E.; discourse date c.400s B.C.E.) and was compiled from several sources, all of which factors complicate the historical reliability of the account. CSB Map #2 depicts the route(s) of the escape based on the Exodus account.
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fatwa
Arabic for a formal legal opinion or decision, given by one so qualified, a mufti.
 
Five Pillars of Islam
The five religious duties in Islam: witness (shahadah), almsgiving (zakat), prayer five times a day accompanied by ritual prostrations (salat), fasting (saum and siyam), and pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). Also called the five pillars of din, or judgment.
 
foil
A secondary character or characters whose actions, by strong contrast, underscore or enhance the distinctive characteristics of another character.
 
form
A type of oral or written passage that can be isolated as a discrete textual unit, with a clear beginning, an identifiable style, and a standard ending. Often forms are repeated in a text for rhetorical effect.
 
form criticism
The study of the structure, content and function of literary or oral units. "Function" includes the Sitz im Leben, or "setting in life," in which these forms would have originated (for example, temple ritual, forensic argument).
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Gemara
From the Hebrew "to complete, finish," an explanation and expansion of the Mishnah.
 
Gentile
A non-Jew; common Jewish term of reference in antiquity.
 
gnosticism
From the Greek for knowledge, any one of a number of dualistic ideologies popular particularly in mid- to late-antiquity that espoused a path of spiritual ascent through the secret, complex structures of the cosmos and away from the evil material world. (see Gnosticism: Resources for Study).
 
gospel
Old English term for good news (godspell), a translation of the Greek term for the same; a literary genre represented in the New Testament by four books (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) and in the New Testament apocrypha by sixteen other books. The canonical gospels tell the story of the public life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They were written between 65–100 C.E.
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hadith
Arabic for traditions told about Muhammad after the compilation of the Qur'an. These traditions provide a second source for Islamic law and practice (available online).
 
hafiz
One who has memorized the entire Qur'an by heart.
 
haggadah
From the Hebrew, "to tell or declare"; Jewish tales, anecdotes, and other traditions about history or theology that appear in rabbinic literature like the Talmud and the midrashim. They are different from halakhic traditions, which concern legal and ritual matters. In the absolute sense, this term often refers to the retelling of the Exodus story during the Passover seder ritual.
 
hajj
The pilgrimage to Mecca enjoined on all Moslems as the fifth pillar of faith, and the ceremonies performed during the days of pilgrimage.
 
halakah
From the Hebrew word for "walk," the "way" or "procedure" for acting according to the biblical commandments and thus living an ethical life. As part of oral Torah, these traditions about legal and ritual matters appear in rabbinic literature, and are to be distinguished from haggadic traditions which concern historical or theological matters (see akhlaq, the Muslim equivalent).
 
haram
The sacred enclave in Mecca enclosing the Ka'bah, the focal point of the hajj.
 
Haram al-Sharif
Arabic for "the Noble Sanctuary," the Dome of the Rock mosque built on Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the third holiest site in Islam from which Muhammad ascended to heaven on his night journey (surah 17; see alsoAl-Aqsa).
 
haredim
Hebrew for "tremblers, God fearers," a term used for ultra orthodox, nationalist Jews in Israel.
 
Hasidic Judaism
A form of Judaism associated with messianic fervor and joyful prayer, this popular movement originated in eastern Europe in the 18th-19th centuries in opposition to the dominant academic, rabbinic form of discourse. It is now linked with Orthodox Judaism.
 
Hasmoneans
A dynastic family of priests who governed Judah and Israel in the wake of the Maccabean Revolt until the Roman conquest (152–63 B.C.E.).
 
Hebrews
One of the most ancient terms for the Israelites, used in Tanak almost exclusively of the patriarchs and other figures who lived before the united monarchy (c.1000 B.C.E.). The term may be related to the words apiru, habiru, used in near eastern documents in the second millennium B.C.E. to refer to a landless class of nomadic peoples and escaped slaves.
 
Hellenism
The graecized culture that spread throughout the Mediterranean world in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great (d.323 B.C.E.) and remained prominent during the period of Roman hegemony.
 
heresy
From the Greek "choice," in religious vocabulary a choice for a teaching about the faith which the dominant or orthodox church holds to be contrary to that faith.
 
hermeneutics
From the Greek "to interpret or explain," the science and methodology of interpretation.
 
heterodoxy
From the Greek "other or different opinion," any position that differs from accepted teaching (see also orthodoxy).
 
Hijaz
West central Arabia, where Islam first arose.
 
hijrah
The emigration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib in 622 C.E., the date on which the Moslem calendar begins.
 
hypostasis
Greek for "substance," the term used to describe the unity of the person of Jesus Christ in early Christological debate while accepting his two natures, divine and human (see Christology).
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ijtihad
"Reasoned deduction," the principle by which laws established in the Qur'an or the Sunnah are adapted to new circumstances.
 
imam
In Sunni Islam, the leader of ritual prayer; in Shi'ah Islam, the successor and heir to "the light of Muhammad."
 
iman
Arabic for "faith"; the doctrinal aspect of the Moslem faith, distinguished from ritual practices (Islam).
 
incarnation
The Christian belief that God became flesh (Latin in + carne) in Jesus of Nazareth.
 
incubation
A temporary period of habitation in a temple in anticipation of divine revelation or in petition for a particular request.
 
infancy narrative
The story of the birth of Jesus, recounted in very different ways by Matthew 1–2 and Luke 1–2. The infancy narrative is a standard feature of the ancient literary genre of biography. Biographies were reserved for important individuals, and in their infancy narratives certain elements and motifs are standard (race, country, ancestors, parents, phenomena at birth).
 
intercession
From the Latin "to walk between," an entreaty on behalf of another; one of the characteristic prophetic activities.
 
irony
The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning; an expression marked by such a deliberate contrast between apparent and intended meaning; incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs.
 
Islam
Arabic for "submission," the act of faith and surrender which defines the praxis of Muslims. Also, the historic faith delivered through Muhammad and the ritual practice in contrast to the doctrinal system, iman.
 
Israeli
A resident of the contemporary State of Israel, particularly a citizen of that state (see also Hebrews, Israelite, Jew).
 
Israelite
An adherent of nascent Judaism during the period of the settlement and united monarchy (c.1200–922 B.C.E.). A citizen of the northern kingdom of Israel after it split off from the southern kingdom of Judah (922 B.C.E.) and until the destruction of Israel by the Assyrians in 721 B.C.E. Thereafter a metaphorical term for Jews (see also Hebrews, Israeli, Jew).
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jahiliyyah
Arabic for the state of ignorance prior to the revelation of the Qur'an and the wildness associated with it. The term is also used by contemporary Muslims to identify unworthy, nominal Moslems.
 
Jew
An adherent of the Jewish faith, particularly after the exile of Judeans to Babylon (see also Hebrews, Israeli, Israelite).
 
Jewish Temple
The central place of worship and prayer in the biblical period. Solomon built a huge edifice in Jerusalem in the mid-10th century B.C.E. with the income from heavy taxes imposed on the people. When the nation split after his reign, it was partly because of this temple; northern Jews had their own shrines (Shechem, Bethel, Dan, Gilgal), and had always opposed centralized worship. The common people in both north and south also resisted centralized worship: archeologists have discovered scores of hilltop memorial shrines to ancestors, small temples to local fertility and astral deities, and remnants of household shrines. The Jerusalem temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587–586 B.C.E., rebuilt by during the restoration (see Ezra and Nehemiah), expanded by Herod the Great in 37–4 B.C.E., and destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. Much of biblical law treats the laws of worship and cultic sacrifices that took place in the Temple (thanksgiving, atonement, free-will offerings).
 
jihad
Arabic for the struggle in the path of Allah. Its primary meaning is the inward discipline in pursuit of well-being and prosperity; only secondarily does it have the meaning of a struggle for or defense of Islam. Some Moslems consider the call to jihad to be a sixth pillar, but it does not officially have that status.
 
jinn
Invisible demons and spirits, some malevolent, some benevolent to humans, capable of shifting shape and thus becoming visible to humans.
 
juz'
One of thirty sections of the Qur'an, so divided to facilitate memorization and recitation of the entire Qur'an in one month's time.
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Ka'bah
The cube-shaped stone shrine at the center of the great mosque in Mecca around which pilgrims in the hajj circulate in ritual ceremonies. The focal point of all Moslem prayer, linked with Adam and Abraham (particularly his near sacrifice of Ishmael). In pre-Islamic Arabia a center of worship to pagan tribal gods, cleansed of idols by Muhammad when he defeated the Quraysh in 630 C.E.
 
kabbalah
Hebrew for "tradition," specifically the medieval Spanish tradition of Jewish mysticism.
 
kashrut
The system of Jewish dietary regulations that includes prohibitions against certain foods such as pork and certain food combinations, such as meat and dairy (Lev 7:22-27; 11).
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Levite
A member of the Israelite clan charged with responsibility for Israel's worship. The Levites traditionally owned no land, but took turns at Temple service and derived their income from the offerings of money and food brought there. The Levites' cultic functions included receiving and storing offerings, preparing the daily sacrifices, and singing and instrumental accompaniment.
 
list-genealogy
A biblical form in which one's kin are listed; may be either segmented or linear. Segmented genealogies emphasize lateral relationships between contemporary kin, while linear genealogies emphasize the bloodline of a particular present descendent (see a more complete description at Literary Forms).
 
liturgy
Greek for "a work of the people," originally a public service performed at an individual's expense; later worship services in general.
 
logos
Greek for "word," a term that came to be applied particularly to Jesus Christ as the divine Word made flesh.
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Maccabean Revolt
A Jewish revolt led by Judas Maccabbeus (= "the Hammer") and his family against the Hellenizing reforms of the Seleucid King Antiochus IV (175-152 B.C.E.). Antiochus' persecution of the Jews and their way of life prompted the composition of the apocalyptic Book of Daniel.
 
martyr
Greek for "witness," the standard legal term for observers at the execution of economic transactions, legal affairs, and everyday events. The term came to have the specialized meaning of "one who testifies to the faith" in Jewish and Christian circles during the persecutions of 200 B.C.E.–200 C.E. (the period when apocalyptic literature flourished).
 
Mecca
The holiest city in Islam, due to the sacred enclosure of the Ka'bah in its center to which Moslems make pilgrimage (hajj). Muhammad was born in Mecca and struggled with its leading families for years before migrating to Medina, establishing an Islamic community, and defeating the Meccans from there.
 
Medina
Originally a city in Saudi Arabia named Yathrib, to which Muhammad migrated in the hijrah, 622 C.E. = 1 A.H. The first place where Islamic law and community were established (Medina means "place of judgment").
 
messiah
Hebrew for "anointed one," a kingly, prophetic, or priestly figure envisioned during and after the Babylonian exile as savior of the Jewish people who would restore their political/religious autonomy. Applied by Christians to Jesus ("Christ" is the Greek equivalent of "messiah") and by Jews throughout history to a handful of leaders (e.g., Simon bar Kokhba, 132–135 C.E., Shabbatai Zevi, 1626–1676 C.E.).
 
midrash
From the Hebrew "to interpret, to explain," the halakhic or haggadic traditions transmitted as an explanation or commentary on a biblical verse. There are separate volumes of midrashim for each of the biblical books.
 
mihrab
A niche in the wall of a mosque indicating the qiblah, or direction of prayer.
 
millennialism
A Christian belief in the literal thousand-year period of peace and well-being in the end times associated with the reign of Christ and the binding of Satan, based on Revelation 20:1-5. Various Christian groups debate whether Christ's coming will inaugurate the thousand-year reign (premillennialists) or conclude it (postmillennialists; the first coming was the one that the New Testament recounts). Still other Christians do not take the thousand-year reign literally (amillennialists).
 
minaret
The English derivative of Arabic manara, or lighthouse, the tower associated with a mosque from which the adhan is chanted five times a day.
 
miracle story
A biblical form of related the story of a singular occurrence, usually a healing or a demonstration of power over nature. The characteristic elements of the miracle story are the narrative setting, the approach to the god, a description of the illness, an announcement of the cure, and a public acknowledgment (see a more complete description at Literary Forms).
 
mi'raj
Muhammad's vision of his night journey to Temple Mount in Jerusalem and from there through the heavens (surah 17).
 
Mishnah
From the Hebrew "to repeat, do again," this refers to the "repetition" or "second version" of the law, that is, a collection of legal and procedural interpretations of the law codified by the rabbinic academy of Yavneh c.200 C.E. It includes some haggadic material as well.
 
mosque
The Moslem assembly place for communal prayer.
 
motif
A topos or element—a type of incident, device, or formula—which recurs frequently in a work.
 
Mount Moriah
The traditional mountain where Abraham nearly sacrificed his son Isaac (Gen 22), also considered in Jewish tradition to be the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.
 
muezzin
Arabic mu'adhdhin, the crier who calls Muslims to prayer by means of the adhan.
 
mufti
A qualified Muslim legal expert or consultant.
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New Testament
The Christian name for the Christian scriptures, that is, for the revelation about Jesus Christ. The term "testament" means something that testifies or witnesses to something; in this case the scriptures attest to God's relationship with the new Israel, those who believe in the Christ. The shape and number of books in the New Testament differ among the major Christian denominations (see the online chart).
 
New Testament Apocrypha
Greek for "hidden," books of Christian pious literature that are not in the Christian canon (available online).
 
numerology
The study of the supernatural power of numbers and their influence over human affairs.
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Old Testament
The Christian name for the Jewish Bible, that is, for the revelation that predates Jesus Christ. The term "testament" means something that testifies or witnesses to something; in this case the scriptures attest to God's relationship with Israel. The shape and number of books in the Christian Old Testament differ somewhat from the Jewish canon (see the online chart).
 
Old Testament Apocrypha
From Greek for "hidden," works that were included in the Greek version of Tanak (the Septuagint) but were not included in the Jewish canon. Because these books were in the Septuagint, they came into Christian Bibles. Many or all are considered canonical by Catholics and eastern churches, while they are considered "deuterocanonical" or simply as pious literature by Protestants (available online).
 
Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
From Greek for "false writing," works written by later authors in the name of earlier biblical figures (available online).
 
oracle
From the Latin orare, to speak or pray, a statement or prophecy uttered at a cultic shrine through a recognized intermediary (prophet, priest, shaman), often in the form of an enigmatic statement or allegory.
 
oral Torah
See Torah.
 
Orthodox Judaism
One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism which began in response to the rise of Reform Judaism after the enlightenment (19th century). Reform Judaism had sought to reduce the emphasis on law in favor of the spirit of Judaism; Orthodox Judaism responded by emphasizing anew the importance of the law (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism).
 
orthodoxy
From the Greek "straight opinion," the accepted or dominant teaching or position (see also heterodoxy).
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parable
A parable is a comparison drawn from nature or common experience in life designed to illustrate some moral or religious truth. It is a common biblical form in Tanak and in the New Testament (see a more complete description at Literary Forms).
 
parousia
See second coming.
 
passion narrative
An account of the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus; probably the earliest portion of the gospels to be written. Passion narratives are found in all the canonical gospels (Mark 14:1–16:8; Matt 26:1–28:20; Luke 22:1–24:53; John 13:1–20:31).
 
passover
The event related in Exodus 12 whereby God delivers the Israelites from captivity in Egypt by passing over their houses and slaying the first-born sons of the Egyptians. Also, the annual ritual recalling this event, and particularly the supper of symbolic foods during which the story of Exodus is retold.
 
Pentateuch
Literally "five jars/scrolls," this is the Greek term for the first five books of the Jewish Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), known in Hebrew as the Torah or instruction. Scholars now believe that the first four of these books were compiled over centuries from and by four different traditions, the Yahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist (responsible for the entire book of Deuteronomy as well), and the Priestly (see Documentary Hypothesis, and two online charts, The Documentary Hypothesis and The Deuteronomistic History).
 
pericope
From the Greek "cut all around," a discrete passage or story in a literary work.
 
pesher
Hebrew for "interpretation" or "commentary," a genre of literature in which a contemporary interpreter provides commentary on every verse of a given biblical book, applying the ancient prophecies to his/her own time.
 
Pharisees
A group of Jews who lived in the late Second Temple period and advocated a democratization of Jewish ritual law so that the common people could partake in the sanctification that priests enjoyed. The Pharisees believed not only in written Torah, but in their own interpretation of that instruction (oral Torah). Their oral Torah included the extension of laws for priestly separation to lay people, as well as a belief in resurrection from the dead.
 
pilgrimage
A journey to a sacred site or shrine.
 
Pillars of Islam
See Five Pillars of Islam.
 
pope
Latin for "father," this refers to the leading bishop of certain Christian denominations (e.g., Roman Catholic Church, Coptic Church).
 
Priestly Writers (P)
Scribes writing in the Jerusalem before and especially after the exile (after 539 B.C.E.). This hypothetical group is so named because their texts are concerned for rituals and cultic legal matters. "P" is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
 
prophet
A prophet is a religious functionary set aside or specially appointed by (a) god for a number of religious and political tasks.
 
Protestantism
Term applied to a variety of churches that broke with Roman Catholicism in the sixteenth century over issues such as the authoritative interpretation of scripture, church authority in general, and religious practice.
 
pseudonymity
From the Greek for "false name," the authorial stance of assuming the identity of a more famous figure in whose tradition one wishes to write; a common and accepted practice in antiquity, though today considered plagiarism.
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"Q" (Quelle)
Abbreviation for the German "Quelle," or source; a hypothetical source for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke that contained the material they share word-for-word that is not in one of their other sources, the Gospel of Mark; it consists mostly of sayings of Jesus (see synoptic problem, Two Source Hypothesis).
 
qiblah
The direction toward which Muslims face during the salat-prayer; originally Jerusalem, but after the hijrah, Mecca; marked in mosques by the mihrab.
 
Qur'an
The Arabic word for "recitation" or "reading," this term refers specifically to the revelations received by Muhammad between 609–632 C.E. and codified by his followers between 644–656 C.E. These revelations are the sacred scriptures of Islam.
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rabbi
Hebrew for "my great one, master, my teacher," a qualified teacher of oral and written Torah.
 
Rabbinic Judaism
A form of Judaism in which Rabbis or teachers govern the authoritative interpretation of written and oral Torah, particularly in halakhic (legal, ethical) matters. After the destruction of the Second Temple and the consequent obsolescence of the priesthood, rabbinic Judaism emerged as the dominant (though not the only) form of Judaism, and continues as such to the present day (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism).
 
rak'a
A cycle of postures during the salat-prayer: standing, bowing, prostrating, sitting.
 
Ramadan
The month during which the Qur'an was first revealed, commemorated annually by Moslems with an obligatory fast during daylight hours (saum, the fourth pillar of Islam).
 
rapture
The Latin equivalent of the Greek "ecstasy," standing apart from oneself, the transporting of a person from one place to another, especially to heaven, hence a technical term for the resurrection of the just at the end of times, based on Revelation 20:4-6.
 
Reconstructionist Judaism
One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism. This group split from Conservative Judaism in New York in 1935. Under the impression that Conservative Jews sought only to preserve historical Judaism, the Reconstructionists sought to preserve the culture of Judaism as well (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism).
 
redaction
The activity of collecting, arranging, editing and modifying sources to adapt their message to new circumstances and the redactor's theological perspective.
 
redaction criticism
The study of the theological perspective of a biblical text evident in its collection, arrangement, editing and modification of sources.
 
Reform Judaism
One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism. Influenced by enlightenment rationalism (18th century), this group sought to reduce the emphasis on the particular Jewish law in favor of the more universal spirit of Judaism (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism).
 
restoration
The period of return from Babylonian exile and reconstruction of Judean society (539–c.450 B.C.E.), reflected in the Bible in the work of the Chronicler (1–2 Chr; Ezra–Nehemiah).
 
Roman Catholicism
A post sixteenth-century C.E. designation for the Christian church that follows the Bishop of Rome. Seven Christian denominations using an Eastern rite for their liturgy rather than the Latin (western) rite are in union with Rome, although they are not "Roman" Catholic; these are the Armenian, Byzantine, Coptic, Ethiopian, East Syrian (Chaldean) West Syrian, and Maronite Catholic Churches.
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Sadducee
A member of the priestly family descended from Zadok, one of two high priestly families under King David; the chief priestly family in the Jerusalem Temple from the time of Solomon to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., and one of the chief ruling parties in Jerusalem from the time of the Hasmonean dynasty (146 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.). The ancient Jewish historian Josephus describes them as religious conservatives who rejected any teachings outside of the Torah, such as resurrection from the dead, life after death, and the existence of angels (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism).
 
salat
The ritual prayer of Islam with prostrations, practiced five times a day; one of the five pillars of Islam.
 
Samaritans
Demographically a group of people who lived in the former northern kingdom of Israel, centered around the ancient capital of Samaria, who after the Assyrian destruction and exile (721 B.C.E.) had remained and intermarried with the non-Israelite peoples transported to the region by Assyria. Religio-politically, a conservative Jewish group that maintained the ancient paleo-Hebrew script for their sacred writings (as opposed to the square script introduced by foreign powers during Assyrian and Babylonian hegemony), and, more importantly, who recognized only the Torah as legitimate scripture (as opposed to Judean Jews, who had expanded scripture to include the prophets and the writings). The Samaritans have maintained their own temple and cult of Jewish festivals on Mount Gerizim near Shechem from the late fourth century B.C.E. to the present day (CSB RG 195–6).
 
saum
The fast during the month of Ramadan, part of the fourth pillar of Islam (see also siyam).
 
scripture
Literally, "a writing"; a written tradition vested with authority by a community because it is understood to be sacred, holy, God-given.
 
second coming
Also referred to by its Greek equivalent, parousia (being alongside, presence), the belief present in every strand of New Testament tradition that Christ will return in the future to establish fully the messianic reign.
 
Second Temple Judaism
Judaism(s) during the period from the restoration to the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans, c.539 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.
 
Seleucids
A Syrian Hellenistic dynasty that controlled Palestine from approximately 200 C.E. until the Hasmonean or Maccabean Revolt of 175–152 B.C.E. The dynasty's attempts to enforce Hellenization at the cost of Jewish law and tradition was the catalyst both for the Revolt and for the composition of the Book of Daniel, and seems to have played a role in the genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls community.
 
Sephardic Jews
Geographic/cultural designation for Jews of Spanish origin living in southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East (see also Ashkenazik Jews).
 
Septuagint
From the Latin for seventy (septem [7] + ginta [decimal suffix]), therefore abbreviated LXX, this is the name for the main ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible with some additional books, undertaken by Jews living in Egypt sometime after 250 B.C.E. This was the premier version used by early Greek-speaking Christians, and so became the basis of the Christian canon. The name "seventy" derives from a tradition that Ptolemy II (285–247 B.C.E.) commissioned 70 or 72 elders to prepare the translation, a task they accomplished in a miraculous 72 days.
 
shahadah
From the Arabic for "witnessing," the act of confessing faith in God alone and in Muhammad his prophet ("There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet").
 
shahid
Arabic for witness, the equivalent of the Greek "martyr."
 
Shari'a
The corpus of divinely revealed Islamic legislation, based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
 
Shema
Hebrew imperative "Hear," the name for the twice-daily Jewish prayer of adherence to the Mosaic covenant, drawn from Deut 6:4-9; 11:13-21 and Num 16:37-41.
 
Shi'a Islam
From the Arabic shi'a, "party," the followers of Ali who became the main minority community in Islam; they believe that leadership within Islam should be based on the descendants of Muhammad through the line of Ali and Fatima. One country in which Shi'ites form the majority is Iran.
 
shirk
The supreme sin of idolatry in Islam.
 
similitude
See parable.
 
siyam
Fasting, the fourth pillar of Islam (see also saum).
 
source criticism
The identification and study of the different sources that lie behind a text. Two famous source-critical hypotheses are the Documentary Hypothesis (Torah) and the Two Source Hypothesis (Gospels).
 
story
The literary critical term for the story told — that is, the events (actions, plot) and elements (characters, space) of a story. The story level is distinguished from the level of discourse, which is the structure of the story and the author's purpose in telling it.
 
Sufism
The mystical tradition within Islam, theoretically not restricted to Sunni or Shi'a. In reality its practitioners are sometimes regarded as a separate group within Islam.
 
Sunnah
The path or way followed by the faithful, also the custom of the prophet Muhammad (see also Sunni Islam).
 
Sunni Islam
The majority group within Islam, "the people of the [Prophet's] path or way" (see also Sunnah).
 
surah
Arabic for "step" (see surah 3:3); a chapter of the Qur'an.
 
synagogue
From the Greek "to bring or gather together" and thus "community," the organized Jewish communities of the Hellenistic world and their places of worship.
 
synoptic gospels
From the Greek "with one eye," the three gospels that tell the story of Jesus in largely the same way, sometimes with passages that are identical word-for-word. These three gospels are Matthew, Mark and Luke.
 
synoptic problem
The observation that, while the three synoptic gospels share much material word-for-word, they are also significantly different. The most accepted theories to account for this problem are 1) the primacy of Mark; and 2) the Two Source Hypothesis (see CSB RG 387; "Q" [Quelle]).
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Talmud
From the Hebrew "to learn, study," the compilation of Mishnah, Gemara, and further rabbinic discussion of halakah and haggadah. There are two Talmuds, one compiled in Palestine during the 300s C.E. (the Palestinian or Jerusalem Talmud, in Hebrew Talmud Yerushalmi), and a more comprehensive work compiled in the Babylonian academies from 400–600 C.E. (the Babylonian Talmud, in Hebrew Talmud Bavli).
 
Talmud Torah
Hebrew for "the study of Torah," this refers to the instruction, discussion and debate over the interpretation of Torah that occurs in Jewish and rabbinic schools.
 
Tanak
The Jewish name for their scriptures; an acronym in which each of the consonants represents one of the three major divisions of the Jewish Bible: "T" for Torah or instruction, law (including the biblical books from Genesis to Deuteronomy), "N" for Nevi'im or prophets (Joshua–Malachi), and "K" for Ketuvim or writings (Psalms–2 Chronicles). The shape and number of books in the Jewish Bible differ somewhat from Christian canon; a complete chart of the similarities and differences is available online.
 
tanzil
The incremental "sending down" of the Qur'an to the prophet Muhammad (see surah 3:3).
 
Temple Mount
The artificial platform enlarged by King Herod (37–4 B.C.E.) to accommodate a refurbished Second Temple. The natural elevation with valleys on its eastern, southern, and western sides was enlarged by extending retaining walls on these sides and filling them with earth to create a level platform 30 football fields in area.
 
testimonia
Lists of "testimonies" or scripture passages drawn from Tanak by early Christians that were seen as pointing or attesting to the coming of Jesus Christ. These testimonies were drawn largely from the prophetic books, but also from the law and writings (see Luke 24:25-27, 32, 44-48).
 
tetragrammaton
Greek for "four letters," the divine name in Hebrew. The four Hebrew consonants for the divine name are not pronounced by Jews when they occur in the biblical text. Instead, circumlocutions like "Lord" or "the Name" are used.
 
theme
A concept or teaching which a work is designed to emphasize and make persuasive to the reader.
 
theodicy
From the Greek "justice of God" or "justifying God," the problem of and attempt to explain the existence of evil and suffering alongside the assertion of a just and loving God (see CSB RG 237).
 
theology
From the Greek "words about God," the science or study of God.
 
Torah
The Hebrew word for instruction, this term designates in its narrowest sense the first five books of the Jewish Bible (Genesis to Deuteronomy), and in its broadest sense authoritative teaching of whatever source. Rabbinic tradition distinguishes between God's revealed instruction disclosed preeminently in scripture (the written Torah) and the subsequent interpretive tradition of that revelation (oral Torah, some of which has been compiled in written sources like the Mishnah, the Gemara, the Talmud, etc.).
 
tradition
The beliefs, customs, stories, laws, religious practices, and other cultural phenomena that are considered valuable and are therefore handed on from generation to generation. The Jewish and Christian Bibles are a collation of traditions; once written, they themselves become an artifact that must be interpreted, and so new traditions are born.
 
Trinity
The Godhead in Christian belief, one God revealed in three persons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
 
Two Source Hypothesis
The theory that the authors of Matthew and Luke used two shared sources for their gospels, the Gospel of Mark and ""Q" (sayings of Jesus), in addition to their own unique material. The theory is one way of accounting for the synoptic problem.
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ummah
The Muslim community or nation in their unity beyond any tribal or national affiliations, that is, the worldwide community that submits to Islam.
 
Umm al-Kitab
Arabic for "the mother of the book," the eternal counterpart of the written, earthly Qur'an.
 
united monarchy
The monarchy of a united Israel under Kings David and Solomon (c.1000-922 B.C.E.; see also divided monarchy).
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vision report
A typical form of prophetic speech, an autobiographical report of the prophet's experience of divine revelation in the form of something seen. The characteristic elements of the vision report are the introductory report, the description of the scene envisioned, and a question/answer between the prophet and one of the envisioned (usually heavenly) beings (see a more complete description at Literary Forms).
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wahy
The state of inspiration in which revelations came to Muhammad.
 
Western Wall
The western retaining wall of Temple Mount in Jerusalem, built by Herod the Great (37–4 B.C.E.). Because it was for centuries one of the few remaining visible vestiges of the Jewish Temple, it was and is a revered center for Jewish pilgrimage.
 
written Torah
See Torah.
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Yahwist Writers (J)
Scribes writing in the southern Kingdom of Judah during and after the united monarchy (1000–922 B.C.E.) and emphasizing southern traditions such as the centrality of Jerusalem. This hypothetical group is so named because their texts use the tetragrammaton for God's name ("Yahweh") rather than the Hebrew 'Elohim found in the Elohist source. "J" (because the German scholar who developed this theory referred to the group with the German name "Jahwist") is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
 
yeshiva
From Hebrew "sitting," a Jewish religious academy.
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zakat
Almsgiving in Islam, the third pillar of Islam.
 
zealot
A Jew committed to rebellion and guerrilla warfare or terrorist activity against the Romans, c.63 B.C.E.–70 C.E.
 
Zion
Another name for Jerusalem, used most often in poetic literature like the Psalms.
 
Zionism
A modern movement of Jewish national self-determination, founded by European Jews in the last decades of the nineteenth century in response to the rise of nationalism in Europe and the persistence of anti-Semitism even after the Enlightenment and the consequent legal emancipation of Jews. With the Holocaust and the U.N. creation of the State of Israel in 1947–1948, the Zionist vision became reality.
 
Zionist
An advocate of Zionism. Also, a derogatory term synonymous with "Israeli" used by some Arabs; it implies the wrongful presence of Israel in Arab land.
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