The glossary below defines significant terms from our course. Additional terms will be added as they come up in the reading and discussions. An additional glossary you might find useful is TheoGlossary, a CD and online resource compiled by Spirituality student (and former Dean of the School of Engineering) Terry Shoup.

For proper names of angelic and demonic beings, see Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst and Bob Becking, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD), rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), in the Reference Room at Orradre.

Some of the following definitions have been adapted from John Corrigan, Frederick M. Denny, Carlos M. N. Eire, and Martin S. Jaffee, "Glossary," in Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998) 494-508, and Donald Senior, et al., eds., "Glossary," in The Catholic Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) 425-39.

 

antichrist

A figure or figures mentioned in the Johannine literature who masquerade as Christ or as Christian believers but who are portrayed as devils in disguise. Their presence signifies the time of the end before the return of the Messiah (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John 7).

 

anti-nomian

Greek for "against the law," a term applied to Paul by his Jewish-Christian foes because of Paul's opposition to circumcision and rigorous observance of kashrut (Jewish dietary laws) for Gentile converts to Christianity.

 

anti-semitism

A modern European racist ideology that first understands Jews as a race and second understands that race as inferior and degenerative of cultures in which Jews are assimilated.

 

apocalyptic

Greek for "revelation," a genre of literature common in social crises or circumstances of persecution, characterized by: 1) a method whereby a prophecy or event from the past associated with a wise figure or religious intermediary (story) is applied to the present day (discourse) to render the meaning of the present chaos clear; 2) mythic features such as a view of God as lord of history, a view of time divided into two ages (the present evil age and the future age of God's reign, a view of ethics that is sharply dualistic, a view of the cosmos which is also binary, envisioning a heavenly plane and an earthly plane with parallel histories, and an esoteric language of visions and symbols that communicate meaning; and 3) and a sense of urgency about time that senses an imminent end of time. Biblical apocalyptic literature flourished from 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.

 

apostle

Greek for "one dispatched or sent off, an envoy"; within Christian circles this term came to mean one sent forth by God (or Jesus) for a mission. The term or role is used within the New Testament of the eleven disciples closest to Jesus who survive his death, as well as Mary Magdalene (John 20:17-18), Paul (Gal 1:1) and Junia (Rom 16:7), it came to be understood as a status proper to bishops.

 

Arianism

The Christological heresy that maintained that the Son of God, because he was generated from God, could not be God, because God is not a generated being (see Christology).

 

Armageddon

The location of the final battle of earth's history as described in the Book of Revelation. The name appears only once in the Bible, and then in Greek, but is probably based on the Hebrew for "mountain of Megiddo." Megiddo was a common battleground, located as it was in a valley along the trade route between Egypt and Mesopotamia (see Judg 5:19). Most notably, it was the battleground where Pharaoh Neco's army killed King Josiah in 621 B.C.E. (2 Kgs 23:29-30; 2 Chr 35:22; Zech 12:11).

 

asceticism

From the Greek for "exercise, practice, training," rigorous physical practices of abstention (e.g., fasting, vegetarianism, celibacy), bodily afflictions (hair shirts, chains), or physical withdrawal from society (cave-dwellers, stylites [people who sit on pillars]), with the intent of ethical or spiritual purification. Ascetic behavior represents a range of responses to social, political, and physical worlds often perceived as oppressive or unfriendly, or as stumbling blocks to (heroic) personal or communal goals, lifestyles and commitments. The locus classicus for Christian asceticism is 1 Cor 7.

 

baptism

A Christian ritual understood to cleanse a person from sin and initiate them into Christian life and community, possibly originating in Jewish purification rituals.

 

bishop

A cleric who oversees the administration of a diocese, an administrative region of the church.

 

canon

From the Greek word for measuring rod, this refers among other meanings to the rule by which something was judged, and particularly to the official list of books judged to be authoritative scriptures by a given community. The Protestant canon of the Old Testament largely follows the Jewish canon. It is therefore smaller than the Catholic canon, which includes several of the extra books found in the early Greek translation of scripture, the Septuagint (see "A Comparison of Jewish and Christian Bibles," pdf 46KB). The Eastern Orthodox churches, which still use the actual Greek version of the Old Testament, recognize all of the Septuagint's extra books in their canon.

 

catholic/Catholic

"Universal." Capitalized, it refers to that Christian church based in Rome and led by the Roman Catholic pope and bishops.

 

celibacy

A state of abstention from sexual intercourse.

 

charisma

Greek for "grace, gift," understood in the New Testament churches as one of several possible manifestations of the presence of the Holy Spirit (e.g., wisdom, knowledge, faith, healing, mighty deeds, prophecy, discernment of spirits, tongues, interpretation of tongues; see 1 Cor 12:1-11).

 

Christ

See messiah.

 

Christology

The branch of Christian theology that explores the person, nature, and function of Christ. High Christology emphasizes the divinity of Christ; its heretical extreme is Docetism, which argues that Jesus only appeared human but was in reality completely divine. Low Christology emphasizes the humanity of Christ; its heretical extreme is Arianism, which argues that since God cannot be generated, and Jesus was generated as a human, Jesus cannot be God.

 

circumcision

The removal of the foreskin of the penis in males, performed ritually within Judaism eight days after the boy's birth as a sign of the boy's participation in the covenant between God and the Jewish people (Gen 17:9-14).

 

cosmology

Greek for "study of the universe," any comprehensive system of understanding and accounting for the universe and its movements.

 

covenant

A covenant is an agreement between two parties. Covenants in antiquity were diplomatic and economic in nature, much as today, and the literary conventions of these ancient covenants were used to portray the relationship between God and Israel. There are several covenants in the Bible: with Noah (Gen 9), with Abraham (Gen 15; 17), with Moses (Exod 20), with David (2 Sam 7:8-17), and through Jesus (Matt 26:26-30; 2 Cor 3:4-18).

 

creed

From the Latin credo, "I believe," a confession of faith; in Christian tradition, any one of several prayers that affirms basic Christian beliefs.

 

Dead Sea Scrolls

A group of over 800 manuscripts found between 1947 and 1956 in various caves on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. The bulk of the manuscripts were discovered in eleven caves near a (probable) Essene settlement at Qumran, and include biblical, parabiblical, apocryphal and sectarian writings as well as some documentary texts (practice alphabets, deeds, contracts, letters).

 

Deuteronomistic History

A theological interpretation of the history of the people Israel in their land, composed by the Deuteronomistic scribes in Jerusalem as a religious explanation for and justification of the reunification of Israel and Judah by King Josiah (640–609 B.C.E.). It comprises the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings, although Deuteronomist additions can be seen throughout the Pentateuch and earlier prophetic books (e.g., Amos 3:7). Central themes are that observance of the law leads to possession of the land, and that God warns the people through "his servants, the prophets," if their sins jeopardize their safety.

 

Deuteronomist Writers (D)

Scribes in the court of King Josiah who composed the Deuteronomistic History c.622 B.C.E. "D" (of "Dtr") is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).

 

diaspora

Greek for "dispersion," most commonly used of Jews living outside the land of Israel anytime after the Babylonian Exile, but also used by other groups (e.g., the Palestinians in an ironic reference to their dispossession by Jews).

 

disciple

Greek for "one who follows," a term used in scripture for students of a master.

 

discourse

The literary critical term for structure and purpose of a narrative or other literary work, which coexists with the story told (events [actions, plot] + elements [characters, space]). The level of discourse is the more subtle level at which the author's judgment and interpretation operate.

 

divided monarchy

The two monarchies of Israel (north) and Judah (south) after the secession of the northern King Jeroboam I. The northern kingdom lasted approximately 200 years, until its defeat by Assyria (c.922-721 B.C.E.). The southern kingdom lasted a bit longer until its defeat by Babylon (c.922-587 B.C.E.; see also united monarchy).

 

Documentary Hypothesis

The theory that seeks to explain the duplications and contradictions within the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy) by positing that four sources or traditions lie behind these five books. The sources, "J" (for Yahwist), "E" (Elohist), "D" (Deuteronomist), and "P" (Priestly), emerge in different parts of the country at different moments in history, and thus reflect different perspectives.

 

ecstatic speech

Speech uttered in a state of divine possession, in which the human being experiences inspiration or visions or transportation to a supernatural sphere that transcends the human; from the Greek "to stand apart from." This type of oracular speech is one of the characteristic activities of the prophet.

 

Elohist Writers (E)

Scribes writing in the northern Kingdom of Israel after its creation in 922 B.C.E. and emphasizing northern traditions in opposition to the southern emphasis of the Yahwists. This hypothetical group is so named because their texts use the Hebrew 'Elohim for God rather than the tetragrammaton ("Yahweh"). "E" is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).

 

epistle

Greek for letter, an exhortation or written sermon intended for public reading.

 

eschatology

The branch of theology that is concerned with the ultimate or last things, such as the end of times, judgment, death, heaven, hell (from the Greek for furthest, uttermost, extreme, end, + logos = word[s]).

 

eschaton

Greek for "the end," the end of times which is regarded as immanent in apocalyptic literature.

 

Essene

A Jewish apocalyptic group associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls that lived from approximately 165 B.C.E.–68 C.E., when they were eradicated by the Romans. The Essenes advocated a return to Torah, and some among their number held property in common and advocated celibacy.

 

eucharist

From the Greek "to give thanks," a central Christian ritual recalling the Passover supper Jesus shared with his disciples the night before he died; also, the bread and wine understood by Catholics as consubstantial with Christ's body and blood offered for human salvation.

 

evangelist

Greek for "one who proclaims the good news" or gospel, understood in Christian tradition to apply particularly to the authors of the four canonical gospels.

 

exegesis

From Greek "to show the way," the interpretation of scriptural texts.

 

exile

The forced removal of the Judean elite to Babylon in the wake of the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 B.C.E., and the period of approximately 50 years during which these people lived in servitude in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.

 

exodus

The exit or escape of Israel from Egyptian captivity, recounted in the book of the same name. The book in its final form dates eight centuries after the events it describes (story date c.1280 B.C.E.; discourse date c.400s B.C.E.) and was compiled from several sources, all of which factors complicate the historical reliability of the account. CSB Map #2 depicts the route(s) of the escape based on the Exodus account.

 

foil

A secondary character or characters whose actions, by strong contrast, underscore or enhance the distinctive characteristics of another character.

 

Gemara

From the Hebrew "to complete, finish," an explanation and expansion of the Mishnah.

 

Gentile

A non-Jew; common Jewish term of reference in antiquity.

 

gnosticism

From the Greek for knowledge, any one of a number of dualistic ideologies popular particularly in mid- to late-antiquity that espoused a path of spiritual ascent through the secret, complex structures of the cosmos and away from the evil material world. (see Gnosticism: Resources for Study).

 

gospel

Old English term for good news (godspell), a translation of the Greek term for the same; a literary genre represented in the New Testament by four books (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) and in the New Testament apocrypha by sixteen other books. The canonical gospels tell the story of the public life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They were written between 65–100 C.E.

 

haggadah

From the Hebrew, "to tell or declare"; Jewish tales, anecdotes, and other traditions about history or theology that appear in rabbinic literature like the Talmud and the midrashim. They are different from halakhic traditions, which concern legal and ritual matters. In the absolute sense, this term often refers to the retelling of the Exodus story during the Passover seder ritual.

 

halakah

From the Hebrew word for "walk," the "way" or "procedure" for acting according to the biblical commandments and thus living an ethical life. As part of oral Torah, these traditions about legal and ritual matters appear in rabbinic literature, and are to be distinguished from haggadic traditions which concern historical or theological matters.

 

Hasmoneans

A dynastic family of priests who governed Judah and Israel in the wake of the Maccabean Revolt until the Roman conquest (152–63 B.C.E.).

 

Hebrews

One of the most ancient terms for the Israelites, used in Tanak almost exclusively of the patriarchs and other figures who lived before the united monarchy (c.1000 B.C.E.). The term may be related to the words apiru, habiru, used in near eastern documents in the second millennium B.C.E. to refer to a landless class of nomadic peoples and escaped slaves.

 

Hellenism

The graecized culture that spread throughout the Mediterranean world in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great (d.323 B.C.E.) and remained prominent during the period of Roman hegemony.

 

heresy

From the Greek "choice," in religious vocabulary a choice for a teaching about the faith which the dominant or orthodox church holds to be contrary to that faith.

 

hermeneutics

From the Greek "to interpret or explain," the science and methodology of interpretation.

 

heterodoxy

From the Greek "other or different opinion," any position that differs from accepted teaching (see also orthodoxy).

 

hypostasis

Greek for "substance," the term used to describe the unity of the person of Jesus Christ in early Christological debate while accepting his two natures, divine and human (see Christology).

 

incarnation

The Christian belief that God became flesh (Latin in + carne) in Jesus of Nazareth.

 

irony

The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning; an expression marked by such a deliberate contrast between apparent and intended meaning; incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs.

 

Israeli

A resident of the contemporary State of Israel, particularly a citizen of that state (see also Hebrews, Israelite, Jew).

 

Israelite

An adherent of nascent Judaism during the period of the settlement and united monarchy (c.1200–922 B.C.E.). A citizen of the northern kingdom of Israel after it split off from the southern kingdom of Judah (922 B.C.E.) and until the destruction of Israel by the Assyrians in 721 B.C.E. Thereafter a metaphorical term for Jews (see also Hebrews, Israeli, Jew).

 

Jew

An adherent of the Jewish faith, particularly after the exile of Judeans to Babylon (see also Hebrews, Israeli, Israelite).

 

Jewish Temple

The central place of worship and prayer in the biblical period. Solomon built a huge edifice in Jerusalem in the mid-10th century B.C.E. with the income from heavy taxes imposed on the people. When the nation split after his reign, it was partly because of this temple; northern Jews had their own shrines (Shechem, Bethel, Dan, Gilgal), and had always opposed centralized worship. The common people in both north and south also resisted centralized worship: archeologists have discovered scores of hilltop memorial shrines to ancestors, small temples to local fertility and astral deities, and remnants of household shrines. The Jerusalem temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587–586 B.C.E., rebuilt by during the restoration (see Ezra and Nehemiah), expanded by Herod the Great in 37–4 B.C.E., and destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. Much of biblical law treats the laws of worship and cultic sacrifices that took place in the Temple (thanksgiving, atonement, free-will offerings).

 

kabbalah

Hebrew for "tradition," specifically the medieval Spanish tradition of Jewish mysticism.

 

kashrut

The system of Jewish dietary regulations that includes prohibitions against certain foods such as pork and certain food combinations, such as meat and dairy (Lev 7:22-27; 11).

 

Levite

A member of the Israelite clan charged with responsibility for Israel's worship. The Levites traditionally owned no land, but took turns at Temple service and derived their income from the offerings of money and food brought there. The Levites' cultic functions included receiving and storing offerings, preparing the daily sacrifices, and singing and instrumental accompaniment.

 

liturgy

Greek for "a work of the people," originally a public service performed at an individual's expense; later worship services in general.

 

logos

Greek for "word," a term that came to be applied particularly to Jesus Christ as the divine Word made flesh.

 

Maccabean Revolt

A Jewish revolt led by Judas Maccabbeus (= "the Hammer") and his family against the Hellenizing reforms of the Seleucid King Antiochus IV (175-152 B.C.E.). Antiochus' persecution of the Jews and their way of life prompted the composition of the apocalyptic Book of Daniel.

 

martyr

Greek for "witness," the standard legal term for observers at the execution of economic transactions, legal affairs, and everyday events. The term came to have the specialized meaning of "one who testifies to the faith" in Jewish and Christian circles during the persecutions of 200 B.C.E.–200 C.E. (the period when apocalyptic literature flourished).

 

messiah

Hebrew for "anointed one," a kingly, prophetic, or priestly figure envisioned during and after the Babylonian exile as savior of the Jewish people who would restore their political/religious autonomy. Applied by Christians to Jesus ("Christ" is the Greek equivalent of "messiah") and by Jews throughout history to a handful of leaders (e.g., Simon bar Kokhba, 132–135 C.E., Shabbatai Zevi, 1626–1676 C.E.).

 

midrash

From the Hebrew "to interpret, to explain," the halakhic or haggadic traditions transmitted as an explanation or commentary on a biblical verse. There are separate volumes of midrashim for each of the biblical books.

 

millennialism

A Christian belief in the literal thousand-year period of peace and well-being in the end times associated with the reign of Christ and the binding of Satan, based on Revelation 20:1-5. Various Christian groups debate whether Christ's coming will inaugurate the thousand-year reign (premillennialists) or conclude it (postmillennialists; the first coming was the one that the New Testament recounts). Still other Christians do not take the thousand-year reign literally (amillennialists).

 

Mishnah

From the Hebrew "to repeat, do again," this refers to the "repetition" or "second version" of the law, that is, a collection of legal and procedural interpretations of the law codified by the rabbinic academy of Yavneh c.200 C.E. It includes some haggadic material as well.

 

motif

A topos or element—a type of incident, device, or formula—which recurs frequently in a work.

 

New Testament

The Christian name for the Christian scriptures, that is, for the revelation about Jesus Christ. The term "testament" means something that testifies or witnesses to something; in this case the scriptures attest to God's relationship with the new Israel, those who believe in the Christ. The shape and number of books in the New Testament differ among the major Christian denominations.

 

New Testament Apocrypha

Greek for "hidden," books of Christian pious literature that are not in the Christian canon (available online).

 

numerology

The study of the supernatural power of numbers and their influence over human affairs.

 

Old Testament

The Christian name for the Jewish Bible, that is, for the revelation that predates Jesus Christ. The term "testament" means something that testifies or witnesses to something; in this case the scriptures attest to God's relationship with Israel. The shape and number of books in the Christian Old Testament differ somewhat from the Jewish canon (see "A Comparison of Jewish and Christian Bibles," pdf 46KB).

 

Old Testament Apocrypha

From Greek for "hidden," works that were included in the Greek version of Tanak (the Septuagint) but were not included in the Jewish canon. Because these books were in the Septuagint, they came into Christian Bibles. Many or all are considered canonical by Catholics and eastern churches, while they are considered "deuterocanonical" or simply as pious literature by Protestants (available online).

 

Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

From Greek for "false writing," works written by later authors in the name of earlier biblical figures (available online).

 

oracle

From the Latin orare, to speak or pray, a statement or prophecy uttered at a cultic shrine through a recognized intermediary (prophet, priest, shaman), often in the form of an enigmatic statement or allegory.

 

oral Torah

See Torah.

 

orthodoxy

From the Greek "straight opinion," the accepted or dominant teaching or position (see also heterodoxy).

 

passover

The event related in Exodus 12 whereby God delivers the Israelites from captivity in Egypt by passing over their houses and slaying the first-born sons of the Egyptians. Also, the annual ritual recalling this event, and particularly the supper of symbolic foods during which the story of Exodus is retold.

 

Pentateuch

Literally "five jars/scrolls," this is the Greek term for the first five books of the Jewish Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), known in Hebrew as the Torah or instruction. Scholars now believe that the first four of these books were compiled over centuries from and by four different traditions, the Yahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist (responsible for the entire book of Deuteronomy as well), and the Priestly (see Documentary Hypothesis, and the online charts on for the "The Composition of Torah" pdf 21KB and "The Deuteronomistic History" pdf 51KB).

 

Pharisees

A group of Jews who lived in the late Second Temple period and advocated a democratization of Jewish ritual law so that the common people could partake in the sanctification that priests enjoyed. The Pharisees believed not only in written Torah, but in their own interpretation of that instruction (oral Torah). Their oral Torah included the extension of laws for priestly separation to lay people, as well as a belief in resurrection from the dead.

 

pilgrimage

A journey to a sacred site or shrine.

 

Priestly Writers (P)

Scribes writing in the Jerusalem before and especially after the exile (after 539 B.C.E.). This hypothetical group is so named because their texts are concerned for rituals and cultic legal matters. "P" is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).

 

prophet

A prophet is a religious functionary set aside or specially appointed by (a) god for a number of religious and political tasks.

 

pseudonymity

From the Greek for "false name," the authorial stance of assuming the identity of a more famous figure in whose tradition one wishes to write; a common and accepted practice in antiquity, though today considered plagiarism.

 

"Q" (Quelle)

Abbreviation for the German "Quelle," or source; a hypothetical source for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke that contained the material they share word-for-word that is not in one of their other sources, the Gospel of Mark; it consists mostly of sayings of Jesus (see synoptic problem, Two Source Hypothesis).

 

rabbi

Hebrew for "my great one, master, my teacher," a qualified teacher of oral and written Torah.

 

Rabbinic Judaism

A form of Judaism in which Rabbis or teachers govern the authoritative interpretation of written and oral Torah, particularly in halakhic (legal, ethical) matters. After the destruction of the Second Temple and the consequent obsolescence of the priesthood, rabbinic Judaism emerged as the dominant (though not the only) form of Judaism, and continues as such to the present day.

 

redaction

The activity of collecting, arranging, editing and modifying sources to adapt their message to new circumstances and the redactor's theological perspective.

 

redaction criticism

The study of the theological perspective of a biblical text evident in its collection, arrangement, editing and modification of sources.

 

restoration

The period of return from Babylonian exile and reconstruction of Judean society (539–c.450 B.C.E.), reflected in the Bible in the work of the Chronicler (1–2 Chr; Ezra–Nehemiah).

 

Sadducee

A member of the priestly family descended from Zadok, one of two high priestly families under King David; the chief priestly family in the Jerusalem Temple from the time of Solomon to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., and one of the chief ruling parties in Jerusalem from the time of the Hasmonean dynasty (146 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.). The ancient Jewish historian Josephus describes them as religious conservatives who rejected any teachings outside of the Torah, such as resurrection from the dead, life after death, and the existence of angels.

 

Samaritans

Demographically a group of people who lived in the former northern kingdom of Israel, centered around the ancient capital of Samaria, who after the Assyrian destruction and exile (721 B.C.E.) had remained and intermarried with the non-Israelite peoples transported to the region by Assyria. Religio-politically, a conservative Jewish group that maintained the ancient paleo-Hebrew script for their sacred writings (as opposed to the square script introduced by foreign powers during Assyrian and Babylonian hegemony), and, more importantly, who recognized only the Torah as legitimate scripture (as opposed to Judean Jews, who had expanded scripture to include the prophets and the writings). The Samaritans have maintained their own temple and cult of Jewish festivals on Mount Gerizim near Shechem from the late fourth century B.C.E. to the present day.

 

scripture

Literally, "a writing"; a written tradition vested with authority by a community because it is understood to be sacred, holy, God-given.

 

second coming

Also referred to by its Greek equivalent, parousia (being alongside, presence), the belief present in every strand of New Testament tradition that Christ will return in the future to establish fully the messianic reign.

 

Second Temple Judaism

Judaism(s) during the period from the restoration to the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans, c.539 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.

 

Seleucids

A Syrian Hellenistic dynasty that controlled Palestine from approximately 200 C.E. until the Hasmonean or Maccabean Revolt of 175–152 B.C.E. The dynasty's attempts to enforce Hellenization at the cost of Jewish law and tradition was the catalyst both for the Revolt and for the composition of the Book of Daniel, and seems to have played a role in the genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls community.

 

Septuagint

From the Latin for seventy (septem [7] + ginta [decimal suffix]), therefore abbreviated LXX, this is the name for the main ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible with some additional books, undertaken by Jews living in Egypt sometime after 250 B.C.E. This was the premier version used by early Greek-speaking Christians, and so became the basis of the Christian canon. The name "seventy" derives from a tradition that Ptolemy II (285–247 B.C.E.) commissioned 70 or 72 elders to prepare the translation, a task they accomplished in a miraculous 72 days.

 

Shema

Hebrew imperative "Hear," the name for the twice-daily Jewish prayer of adherence to the Mosaic covenant, drawn from Deut 6:4-9; 11:13-21 and Num 16:37-41.

 

source criticism

The identification and study of the different sources that lie behind a text. Two famous source-critical hypotheses are the Documentary Hypothesis (Torah) and the Two Source Hypothesis (Gospels).

 

story

The literary critical term for the story told — that is, the events (actions, plot) and elements (characters, space) of a story. The story level is distinguished from the level of discourse, which is the structure of the story and the author's purpose in telling it.

 

synagogue

From the Greek "to bring or gather together" and thus "community," the organized Jewish communities of the Hellenistic world and their places of worship.

 

synoptic gospels

From the Greek "with one eye," the three gospels that tell the story of Jesus in largely the same way, sometimes with passages that are identical word-for-word. These three gospels are Matthew, Mark and Luke.

 

synoptic problem

The observation that, while the three synoptic gospels share much material word-for-word, they are also significantly different. The most accepted theories to account for this problem are 1) the primacy of Mark; and 2) the Two Source Hypothesis (see "Q" [Quelle]).

 

Talmud

From the Hebrew "to learn, study," the compilation of Mishnah, Gemara, and further rabbinic discussion of halakah and haggadah. There are two Talmuds, one compiled in Palestine during the 300s C.E. (the Palestinian or Jerusalem Talmud, in Hebrew Talmud Yerushalmi), and a more comprehensive work compiled in the Babylonian academies from 400–600 C.E. (the Babylonian Talmud, in Hebrew Talmud Bavli).

 

Talmud Torah

Hebrew for "the study of Torah," this refers to the instruction, discussion and debate over the interpretation of Torah that occurs in Jewish and rabbinic schools.

 

Tanak

The Jewish name for their scriptures; an acronym in which each of the consonants represents one of the three major divisions of the Jewish Bible: "T" for Torah or instruction, law (including the biblical books from Genesis to Deuteronomy), "N" for Nevi'im or prophets (Joshua–Malachi), and "K" for Ketuvim or writings (Psalms–2 Chronicles). The shape and number of books in the Jewish Bible differ somewhat from the Christian canon (see "A Comparison of Jewish and Christian Bibles" pdf 46KB).

 

Temple Mount

The artificial platform enlarged by King Herod (37–4 B.C.E.) to accommodate a refurbished Second Temple. The natural elevation with valleys on its eastern, southern, and western sides was enlarged by extending retaining walls on these sides and filling them with earth to create a level platform 30 football fields in area.

 

tetragrammaton

Greek for "four letters," the divine name in Hebrew. The four Hebrew consonants for the divine name are not pronounced by Jews when they occur in the biblical text. Instead, circumlocutions like "Lord" or "the Name" are used.

 

theme

A concept or teaching which a work is designed to emphasize and make persuasive to the reader.

 

theodicy

From the Greek "justice of God" or "justifying God," the problem of and attempt to explain the existence of evil and suffering alongside the assertion of a just and loving God.

 

theology

From the Greek "words about God," the science or study of God.

 

Torah

The Hebrew word for instruction, this term designates in its narrowest sense the first five books of the Jewish Bible (Genesis to Deuteronomy), and in its broadest sense authoritative teaching of whatever source. Rabbinic tradition distinguishes between God's revealed instruction disclosed preeminently in scripture (the written Torah) and the subsequent interpretive tradition of that revelation (oral Torah, some of which has been compiled in written sources like the Mishnah, the Gemara, the Talmud, etc.).

 

Trinity

The Godhead in Christian belief, one God revealed in three persons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

 

Two Source Hypothesis

The theory that the authors of Matthew and Luke used two shared sources for their gospels, the Gospel of Mark and "Q" (sayings of Jesus), in addition to their own unique material. The theory is one way of accounting for the synoptic problem.

 

united monarchy

The monarchy of a united Israel under Kings David and Solomon (c.1000-922 B.C.E.; see also divided monarchy).

 

Western Wall

The western retaining wall of Temple Mount in Jerusalem, built by Herod the Great (37–4 B.C.E.). Because it was for centuries one of the few remaining visible vestiges of the Jewish Temple, it was and is a revered center for Jewish pilgrimage.

 

written Torah

See Torah.

 

Yahwist Writers (J)

Scribes writing in the southern Kingdom of Judah during and after the united monarchy (1000–922 B.C.E.) and emphasizing southern traditions such as the centrality of Jerusalem. This hypothetical group is so named because their texts use the tetragrammaton for God's name ("Yahweh") rather than the Hebrew 'Elohim found in the Elohist source. "J" (because the German scholar who developed this theory referred to the group with the German name "Jahwist") is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).

 

zealot

A Jew committed to rebellion and guerrilla warfare or terrorist activity against the Romans, c.63 B.C.E.–70 C.E.

 

Zion

Another name for Jerusalem, used most often in poetic literature like the Psalms.

 

Zionism

A modern movement of Jewish national self-determination, founded by European Jews in the last decades of the nineteenth century in response to the rise of nationalism in Europe and the persistence of anti-Semitism even after the Enlightenment and the consequent legal emancipation of Jews. With the Holocaust and the U.N. creation of the State of Israel in 1947–1948, the Zionist vision became reality.

 

Zionist

An advocate of Zionism. Also, a derogatory term synonymous with "Israeli" used by some Arabs; it implies the wrongful presence of Israel in Arab land.