Santa Clara University
Religious Studies Department, SCU
Research
Course Links
Syllabus
Class Prep
Camino
Assignments
Bible
Library Reserve
Bibliography
Glossary
Extra Credit
Grades
Research Topics
  Lilith
(Gen 1–2; Isa 34:14; 4Q184; 11QpsAp)

Resources for
Historical Analysis
Resources for
Modern Modes

Bar Rose
Historical Analysis
 
Authors
The authorship of a work depends on which work you choose to focus on. Choose a matching commentary and secondary sources about that biblical or apocryphal text:
 
 
Commentaries
 
Genesis 1
Lilith is not actually mentioned in Genesis 1, so this text and commentaries shouldn't be your first choice, though provide secondary background that might be useful
 
Fretheim, Terence E.  "Genesis."  In The New Interpreter's Bible, vol. 1, Genesis to Leviticus (Nashville: Abingdon, 1994) [add pages of full essay].
 
Sadler, Rodney S., Jr.  "Genesis."  In Fortress Commentary on the Bible: The Old Testament and Apocrypha (ed. Gale A. Yee, Hugh R. Page, Jr. and Matthew J. M. Coomber; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2014) 89-136.
[Link above is to the print copy; here is a link to an electronic copy]
 
Sarna, Nahum M.  Genesis = Be-reshit: The Traditional Hebrew Text with New JPS Translation.  Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989.
 
Speiser, E. A.  Genesis, Anchor Bible 1.  Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1964.
 
Westermann, Claus.  Genesis 12–36: A Commentary, trans. John J. Scullion.   Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1985.
 
 
Isaiah 34
Blenkinsopp, Joseph.  Isaiah 1–39: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, Anchor Bible 19.  New York: Doubleday, 2000.
 
Kaiser, Otto.  Isaiah 13–39: A Commentary, trans. R. A. Wilson, Old Testament Library.  Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1974.
 
Roberts, J. J. M.  First Isaiah: A Commentary, Hermeneia.  Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015.
 
 
The Dead Sea Scrolls
Sapiential Admonitions A (4Q184)
Harrington, Daniel J.  "Folly and Wisdom in 4Q184–185."  In Wisdom Texts from Qumran (Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls; New York: Routledge, 2006) 31-9.
 
11QpsAp
Shepherd, Jennifer.  "11QApocryphal Psalms (11Q11): Structure, Genre and Function."  Ph.D. Thesis, University of Manchester, 2005.
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
General Background
Fontaine, Carole L.  "Lilith."  In Women in Scripture: A Dictionary of Names and Unnamed Women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, and the New Testament (ed. Carol Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross S. Kraemer; Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 2000) 531.
 
Gaines, Janet Howe.  "Lilith: Seductress, Heroine or Murderer?"  Bible Review 17:5 (2001) 12-44 (11 pages).
 
Handy, Lowell K.  "Lilith.”"  In Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 4, K-N (ed. David Noel Freedman; Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1992) 324-5.
 
Hutter, M.  "Lilith לילית."  In Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD) (ed. Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking and Pieter W. van der Horst; Boston/Grand Rapids, Michigan: Brill/Eerdmans, 1999) 520-21.
 
Jacoby, Jay.  "Lilith in Jewish Literature."  Judaica Librarianship 3:1-2 (1986) 79-82.
 
Lesses, Rebecca.  "Exe(o)rcising Power: Women as Sorceresses, Exorcists, and Demonesses in Babylonian Jewish Society of Late Antiquity."  Journal of the American Academy of Religion 69:2 (2001) 343–75.
 
McDermott, M. Joan and Sarah J. Blackstone.  "Lilith in Myth, Melodrama, and Criminology."  Women & Criminal Justice 13:1 (2001) 85-98.
 
Scholem, Gershom.  "Lilith."  In Encyclopaedia Judaica (ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik; Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA in association with the Keter Publishing House, 2007) 13.17-20.
 
Soza, Joel R.  Lucifer, Leviathan, Lilith, and Other Mysterious Creatures of the Bible.  Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017.
 
Teugels, G.M.G.  "The Creation of the Human in Rabbinic Tradition."  In The Creation of Man and Woman: Interpretations of the Biblical Narratives in Jewish and Christian Traditions (ed. Gerard P. Luttikhuizen; Leiden: Brill, 2000) 107–127.
 
van der Toorn, Karel, Bob Becking and Pieter W. van der Horst, eds.  "Lilith."  In Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD), 2nd ed.  Boston/Grand Rapids, Michigan: Brill/Eerdmans, 1999.
 
 
Isaiah 34
Ballard, H. Wayne, Jr.  "Is Lilith Fair?  An Observation from Isaiah 34:14."   Review and Expositor 95:4 (1998) 583-8.
 
Driver, Godfrey Rolles.  "Lilith: Isa 34:14."  Palestine Exploration Quarterly 91 (1959) 55-57.
 
 
The Dead Sea Scrolls
 
Sapiential Admonitions A (4Q184)
Aubin, Melissa.  "'She Is the Beginning of All the Ways of Perversity': Femininity and Metaphor in 4Q184."  Women in Judaism: A Multidisciplinary Journal 2:2 (2001) 23 pages.  Online, http://sites.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/journal/ vol2n2/documents/
aubin.pdf
, accessed [your access date].
 
Baumgarten, Joseph M.  "On the Nature of the Seductress in 4Q184."  Revue de Qumran 15:1-2 (1991–1992) 133-43.
 
Goff, Matthew J.  "Gendered Wisdom: 4QWIles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184)."  In Discerning Wisdom: The Sapiential Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls (VTSup 116; Boston: Brill, 2006) 104-121.
 
 
11QpsAp
Frölich, Ida.  "'Invoke at Any Time...': Apotropaic Texts and Belief in Demons in the Literature of the Qumran Community."  Biblische Notizen 137 (2008) 41-74.
 
Lichtenberger, Hermann.  "Demonology in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament."  In Text, Thought, and Practice in Qumran and Early Christianity: Proceedings of the Ninth International Symposium of hte Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, Jointly Sponsored by the Hebrew University Center for the Study of Christianity, 11–13 January 2004 (ed. Ruth Clements adn Daniel R. Schwartz; STDJ 84; Boston: Brill, 2009) 267-80.
 
Stuckenbruck, Loren T.  "Prayers of Deliverance from the Demonic in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Early Jewish Literature."  In The Changing Face of Judaism, Christianity, and Other Grego-Roman Religions in Antiquity (ed. Ian H. Henderson and Gerbern S. Oegema, with Sara Parks Rickers; Studien zu den jüdiscchen Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit 2; Gütersloh: Güterslohrer, 2006) 146-65.
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Modern Modes
Religious   Secular
Bar Rose
 
Aramaic Incantation BowlBabylonian and Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Incantation Bowls (300 BCE–400 CE)
 
Primary Text Citations
 
Follow the format for citing an artifact that you find in your sources.
 
 
Mode
 
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • L'Année philologique
  • Art Full Text
  • Art Index Retrospective
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
 
Albenda, Pauline.  "The 'Queen of the Night' Plaque—a Revisit."  Journal of the American Oriental Society 125:2 (2005) 171-90.
 
Bhayro, Siam.  "The Reception of Mesopotamian and Early Jewish Traditions in the Aramaic Incantation Bowls."  Aramaic Studies 11:2 (2013) 187-96.
 
Frim, Daniel J.  "'And It Was in the Dwelling of Rabbi Joshua Bar Perahiah': Notes on the Nati-Demonic Get in the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Incantation Bowls."  The Review of Rabbinic Judaism 18:2 (2015) 192-226.
 
Lesses, Rebecca.  "Exe(O)Rcising Power: Women as Sorceresses, Exorcists, and Demonesses in Babylonian Jewish Society of Late Antiquity."  Journal of the American Academy of Religion 69:2 (2001) 343-75.
 
Levene, Dan and Gideon Bohak.  "Divorcing Lilith: From the Babylonian Incantation Bowls to the Cairo Genizah."  Journal of Jewish Studies 63:2 (2012) 197-217.
 
Levene, Dan.  "Heal O' Israel: A Pair of Duplicate Magic Bowls from the Pergamum Museum in Berlin."  Journal of Jewish Studies 54:1 (2003) 104-121.
 
Levine, Baruch.  "The Language of the Magic Bowls."  In A History of the Jews in Babylonia, vol. 5 (ed. Jacob Neusner; Leiden: Brill, 1970) 243–373.
 
Montgomery, James.  Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur, University of Pennsylvania, The Museum, Publications of the Babylonian Section 3.   Philadelphia: University Museum, 1913.  Online, https://archive.org/details/aramaicincantati00montuoft, accessed [your access date].
 
Naveh, Joseph, and Shaul Shaked.  Amulets and Magic Bowls: Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiquity, 2nd ed.  Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magnes Press, 1987.
 
Walker, Harriet (Physician).  "Possible Psychological Roles of the Aramaic Incantation Bowls: Therapeutic Functions of Belief in Demons and the Practice of Incantations."  Aramaic Studies 13:1 (2015) 95-109.
 
Bar Rose
 
Printing Plate, Alphabet of Ben Sira Lilith AmuletThe Alphabet of Ben Sira (700s CE)
 
Primary Text Citations
 
Ben Sira.  "The Alphabet of Ben Sira."  In Rabbinic Fantasies (ed. David Stern and Mark Jay Mirsky; Philadelphia: 1990) 167–202.
 
 
Mode
 
Dan, Joseph.  Ben Sira, Alphabet of."  In Encyclopaedia Judaica (ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik, 2nd ed.; New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007) 3.375-376.
 
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
 
Ben-Amos, Dan.  "From Eden to Ednah: Lilith in the Garden."  Biblical Archaeology Review 42:3 (2016) 54-8, 65.
 
Börner-Klein, Dagmar.  "Tell Me Who I Am: Reading the Alphabet of Ben Sira."  In Literary Construction of Identity in the Ancient World: Proceedings of a Conference, Literary Fiction and the Construction of Identity in Ancient Literatures: Options and Limits of Modern Literary Approaches in the Exegesis of Ancient Texts, Heidelberg, July 10-13, 2006 (ed. Hanna Liss and Manfred Oeming; Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2010) 135-44.
 
Jacoby, Jay.  "Lilith in Jewish Literature."  Judaica Librarianship 3:1-2 (1986) 79-82.
 
Schwartz, Howard.  "Jewish Tales of the Supernatural."  Judaism 36:3 (1987) 339-51.
 
Teugels, G.M.G.  "The Creation of the Human in Rabbinic Tradition."  In The Creation of Man and Woman: Interpretations of the Biblical Narratives in Jewish and Christian Traditions (ed. Gerard P. Luttikhuizen; Leiden: Brill, 2000) 107–127.
 
Tobias Lachs, Samuel.  "The Alphabet of Ben Sira."  Gratz College Annual of Jewish Studies 11 (1973) 9-28.
 
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Lilith AmuletTreatise on the Left Emanation and Zohar (1200s CE)
 
Primary Text Citations
 
ha-Kohen, Isaac ben Jacob.  "Treatise on the Left Emanation."  In Ronald C. Kiener, The Early Kabbalah (ed. Joseph Dan; New York: Paulist, 1986) 172-82.  Online, http://jewishchristianlit.com/
Topics/Lilith/jacob_ha_
kohen.html
, accessed [your access date].
 
de Léon, Moses.  "Zohar."   In Isaiah Tishby, The Wisdom of the Zohar: An Anthology of Texts, 3 vols., trans. David Goldstein.  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
 
 
Mode
 
Dan, Joseph.  Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Very Short Introductions.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
 
Dan, Joseph.  "Samael, Lilith, and the Concept of Evil in Early Kabbalah."  AJS Review 5 (1980) 17-40.
 
Poorthuis, Marcus.  "Eve's Demonic Offspring: A Jewish Motif in German Literature."  In Eve's Children: The Biblical Stories Retold and Interpreted in Jewish and Christian Traditions (ed. Gerard P. Luttikhuizen; Themes in Biblical Narrative 5; Boston: Brill, 2003) 57-74.
 
Scholem, Gershom.  "Lilith."  In Kabbalah (Jerusalem: Keter, 1974) 356-60.
 
--------.  On the Kabbalah and Uts Symbolism, trans. Ralph Manheim.   New York: 1965.
 
--------.  On the Mystical Shape of the Godhead: Basic Concepts in the Kabbalah.  New York: 1991.
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Aramaic Incantation BowlThe Coming of Lilith, Judith Plaskow (1974; and Jewish feminist midrash)
 
Primary Text Citations
 
Plaskow, Judith.  "The Coming of Lilith."  In Religion and Sexism: Images of Women in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (ed. Rosemary Radford Ruether; New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974) 341-3.
 
 
Mode
 
Kahn-Harris, Deborah.  "Midrash for the Masses: The Uses (and Abuses) of the Term 'Midrash' in Contemporary Feminist Discourse."  Feminist Theology 21:3 (2013) 295-308.
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
 
Baker, Cynthia.  "Jewish Feminist Biblical Studies."  In Feminist Biblical Studies in the Twentieth Century: Scholarship and Movement (ed. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza; Bible and Women 9.1; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2014) 145-60.
 
Dame, Enid.  "Lilith as Good Mother in Contemporary Jewish Women's Midrashic Poetry."  Phoebe: Gender & Cultural Critiques 9:2 (year) 39-46.
 
Dame, Enid, Lilly Rivlin and Henny Wenkart, eds.  Which Lilith?  Feminist Writers Re-create the World’s First Woman.  Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1998.
 
Grenn, Deborah J.  "Lilith's Fire: Examining Original Sources of Power Re-Defining Sacred Texts as Transformative Theological Practice."  Feminist Theology 16:1 (2007) 36-46.
 
Hantman, Barbara.  "Lilith and Adam Redux."  Women in Judaism 8:2 (2011) pages.
 
Hellig, Jocelyn.  "Lilith as a Focus of Judaism's Gender Construction."  Dialogue & Alliance 12:1 (1998) 35-49.
 
Plaskow, Judith.  "The Coming of Lilith: A Response."  Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 23:1 (2007) 34-41.
 
Stuckey, Johanna.  "The Coming of Lilith: Essays on Feminism, Judaism, and Sexual Ethics, 1972-2003."  Canadian Woman Studies 25:3/4 (2006) 213-214.
 
Walton, Rivkah M.  "Lilith's Daughters, Miriam's Chorus: Two Decades of Feminist Midrash."  Religion & Literature 43:2 (2011) 115-127.
 
Weiner, Nella Fermi.  "Lilith: First Woman, First Feminist."  International Journal of Women's Studies 2:6 (1979) 551-559.
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Benjamin, Finding Home Nos. 74-75 (Fereshteh): LilithFinding Home Nos. 74–75 (Fereshteh): "Lilith" SIona Benjamin (2005–2006)
 
Primary Text Citations
 
Benjamin, Siona.  Finding Home No. 74 (Fereshteh): "Lilith."  2005.  Gouache and gold leaf on wood panel.  76.2 x 60.96 cm.  
 
--------.  Finding Home No. 75 (Fereshteh): "Lilith."  2006.  Gouache and gold leaf on wood panel.  76.2 x 66.04 cm.  
 
 
Mode
 
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • Art Full Text
  • Art Index Retrospective
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
 
Orenstein, Gloria.  "Vision and Visibility: Contemporary Jewish Women Artists Visualize the Invisible."  Femspec 4:2 (2004) 46-82.
 
Soltes, Ori Z.  "Finding Home: The Midrashic Art of Siona Benjamin."  Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies and Gender Studies 14 (2007) 173-8.
 
--------.  "Finding Home: The Transcultural Worlds of Siona Benjamin."   Feminist Studies 38:3 (2012) 689-719.
 
--------.  "Finding Home: The Worlds of Siona Benjamin."  Marg: A Magazine of the Arts 67:1 (2015) 44-55.
 
Shorter Pieces
 
Benjamin, Siona.  "Lilith in the New World."  Art in America 96:10 (2008) 114.
 
"Blue Angels."  Art and Antiquities 40:3 (2017) 33.
 
Streitfeld, L. P.  "Siona Benjamin."  Art New England 26:4 (2005) 9, 59.
 
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Collier, LilithLilith, John Maler Collier (1887)
 
Primary Text Citation
 
Collier, John Maler.  Lilith.  1887.  Oil on canvas.  194 x 104 cm.  The Atkinson Art Gallery, Southport, England.
 
 
Mode
 
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • Art Full Text
  • Art Index Retrospective
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
  • Women's Studies International
 
Collier, John.  The Religion of an Artist.  London: Watts, 1926.
 
Gauld, Nicola.  "Victorian Bodies: The Wild Animal as Adornment."  British Art Journal 6:1 (2005) 37-42.
 
 
 
Bar Rose
 
D'Vorzon, Lilith (Swamp Diptych)Lilith (Swamp Diptych), Berenice D'Vorzon (1987)
 
Primary Text Citation
 
D'Vorzon, Berenice.  Lilith (Swamp Diptych).   1987.   Acrylic on canvas.  172.72 x 304.8 cm.  
 
Artist's Website
 
 
Mode
 
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • Art Full Text
  • Art Index Retrospective
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
  • Women's Studies International
 
Miller-Lanning, Darlene.  "Female in Nature: Diptychs by Berenice D'Vorzon."   Bridges: A Jewish Feminist Journal 15:1 (2010) 54-63.
 
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Moore, Best of C. L. MooreFruit of Knowledge, Catherine L. Moore (1940)
 
Primary Text Citation
 
Moore, C. L.  Fruit of Knowledge.  In The Best of C. L. Moore (ed. Lester del Rey; New York: Diversion Books, 1975; originally published in Unknown [October 1940]) pages.  
 
 
 
Mode
 
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • Book Review Digest Plus
  • Book Review Digest Retrospective
  • Essay and General Literature Index
  • Essay and General Literature Retrospective
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
  • Women's Studies International
 
Barr, Marleen S.  Feminist Fabulation: Space/Postmodern Fiction.  Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1992.
 
Del Rey, Lester.  "Forty Years of C. L. Moore."  In The Best of C. L. Moore (ed. Lester Del Rey; New York: Ballantine, 1976) ix-xv.
 
Gamble, Sarah.  "'Shambleau...and Others': The Role of the Female in the Fiction of C. L. Moore."  In Where No Man Has Gone Before: Women and Science Fiction (ed. Lucie Arnitt; London: Routledge, 1991) 29-49.
 
Gubar, Susan.  "C. L. Moore and the Conventions of Women's Science Fiction."  Science Fiction Studies 7:20 (March 1980) 16-27.
 
Mathews, Patricia.  "C. L. Moore's Classic Science Fiction."  In The Feminine Eye (ed. Tom Staicar; New York: Frederick Ungar, 1982) 14-24.
 
Osherow, Michele.  "The Dawn of a New Lilith: Revisionary Mythmaking in Women's Science Fiction."  NWSA Journal 12:1 (2000) 68-83.
 
Roberts, Robin.  A New Species: Gender and Science in Science Fiction.  Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993.
 
Rosinsky, Natalie M.  "C. L. Moore's 'Shambleau': Woman as Alien or Alienated Woman?"  In Selected Proceedings of the 1978 SFRA National Conference (ed. Thomas J. Remington; Cedar Falls, Iowa: University of Northern Iowa, 1979) 68-74.
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Butler, Lilith's BroodLilith's Brood, Octavia Butler (1989)
 
Primary Text Citation
 
Butler, Octavia.  Lilith's Brood.   1989.   New York: Warner Books, 1989.  
 
This book is a compliation of three books: Dawn (1987), Adulthood Rites (1988) and Imago (1989)
 
Author's Website
 
 
Mode
 
Slusser, George and Danièle Chatelain.  "Conveying Unknown Worlds: Patterns of Communication in Science Fiction."  Science Fiction Studies 29:2 (2002) 161-85.
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • Academic Search Complete
  • Book Review Digest Plus
  • Essay and General Literature Index
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • Humanities and Social Sciences Index Retrospective
  • Humanities Full Text
  • Women's Studies International
 
Osherow, Michele.  "The Dawn of a New Lilith: Revisionary Mythmaking in Women's Science Fiction."  NWSA Journal 12:1 (2000) 68-83.
 
Roberts, Robin.  A New Species: Gender and Science in Science Fiction.  Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993.
 
Wood, Sarah.  "Subversion through Inclusion: Octavia Butler's Interrogation of Religion in 'Xenogenesis' and 'Wild Seed.'"  Femspec 6:1 (2005) 87-99.
 
Zaki, Hoda M.  "Utopia, Dystopia, and Ideology in the Science Fiction of Octavia Butler."  Science Fiction Studies 17:2 (1990) 239-88.
 
 
 
Bar Rose
 
Biography of Lilith, dir. Lynne Sachs (1997)
 
Primary Text Citation
 
Biography of Lilith.   Dir. Lynne Sachs.  37 min.  Studio, 1997.  [format you watched it in].

35.24
 
 
Secondary Literature
 
Relevant Databases for Secondary Sources
  • ATLA Religion Database
  • ComAbstracts
  • Communication Source
  • Film & Television Literature Index with Full Text
  • Film Literature Index
 
Sachs, Lynne.  "Thoughts on Birth and Brakhage."  Camera Obscura 22:64 (2007) 194-196.
 
 
Film Reviews
Because these are short and popular, you can read them, but they don't replace the need for at least two professional sources.
 
x
 
Get Adobe Acrobat