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Glossary
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The glossary below defines significant terms from our course. Additional terms will be added as they come up in the reading and discussions.
For proper names of angelic and demonic beings, see Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst and Bob Becking, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD), rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), in the Reference Room at Orradre.
Some of the following definitions have been adapted from John Corrigan, Frederick M. Denny, Carlos M. N. Eire, and Martin S. Jaffee, "Glossary," in Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998) 494-508; Kenneth Cragg, "Glossary," in Readings in the Qur'an (San Francisco: Collins, 1988) 356-65; and Donald Senior, et al., eds., "Glossary," in The Catholic Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) 425-39.
-
- akhlaq
- Arabic for "ethics" (see the Hebrew/Jewish equivalent, halakah).
-
- Al-Aqsa
- Arabic for "the farthest," referring in surah 17:1 to the sacred sanctuary to which Muhammad was carried on his night journey, usually understood to be Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Also, the name of one of the two mosques on Temple Mount today (see Dome of the Rock, Haram al-Sharif).
-
- Al Fatihah
- Arabic for "the opening," the name for the first surah of the Qur'an.
-
- Allah
- The Arabic name for God.
-
- Al-Rasul
- Arabic for "the messenger," a title for Muhammad as the final messenger, envoy, or apostle of Allah. The plural rusul is used of other earlier prophets.
-
- antichrist
- A figure or figures mentioned in the Johannine literature who masquerade as Christ or as Christian believers but who are portrayed as devils in disguise. Their presence signifies the time of the end before the return of the Messiah (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John 7).
-
- anti-nomian
- Greek for "against the law," a term applied to Paul by his Jewish-Christian foes because of Paul's opposition to circumcision and rigorous observance of kashrut (Jewish dietary laws) for Gentile converts to Christianity.
-
- anti-semitism
- A modern European racist ideology that first understands Jews as a race and second understands that race as inferior and degenerative of cultures in which Jews are assimilated.
-
- apocalyptic
- Greek for "revelation," a genre of literature common in social crises or circumstances of persecution, characterized by: 1) a method whereby a prophecy or event from the past associated with a wise figure or religious intermediary (story) is applied to the present day (discourse) to render the meaning of the present chaos clear; 2) mythic features such as a view of God as lord of history, a view of time divided into two ages (the present evil age and the future age of God's reign, a view of ethics that is sharply dualistic, a view of the cosmos which is also binary, envisioning a heavenly plane and an earthly plane with parallel histories, and an esoteric language of visions and symbols that communicate meaning; and 3) and a sense of urgency about time that senses an imminent end of time. Biblical apocalyptic literature flourished from 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.
-
- apostle
- Greek for "one dispatched or sent off, an envoy"; within Christian circles this term came to mean one sent forth by God (or Jesus) for a mission. The term or role is used within the New Testament of the eleven disciples closest to Jesus who survive his death, as well as Mary Magdalene (John 20:17-18), Paul (Gal 1:1) and Junia (Rom 16:7), it came to be understood as a status proper to bishops.
-
- Arianism
- The Christological heresy that maintained that the Son of God, because he was generated from God, could not be God, because God is not a generated being (see Christology).
-
- Armageddon
- The location of the final battle of earth's history as described in the Book of Revelation. The name appears only once in the Bible, and then in Greek, but is probably based on the Hebrew for "mountain of Megiddo." Megiddo was a common battleground, located as it was in a valley along the trade route between Egypt and Mesopotamia (see Judg 5:19). Most notably, it was the battleground where Pharaoh Neco's army killed King Josiah in 621 B.C.E. (2 Kgs 23:29-30; 2 Chr 35:22; Zech 12:11).
-
- asceticism
- From the Greek for "exercise, practice, training," rigorous physical practices of abstention (e.g., fasting, vegetarianism, celibacy), bodily afflictions (hair shirts, chains), or physical withdrawal from society (cave-dwellers, stylites [people who sit on pillars]), with the intent of ethical or spiritual purification. Ascetic behavior represents a range of responses to social, political, and physical worlds often perceived as oppressive or unfriendly, or as stumbling blocks to (heroic) personal or communal goals, lifestyles and commitments. The locus classicus for Christian asceticism is 1 Cor 7.
-
- Ashkenazik Jews
- Geographic/cultural designation for Jews of central and eastern European origin (see also Sephardic Jews).
-
- aya (pl. ayat)
- Verse of the Qur'an; also, a sign in the natural world or in prophetic history by which humanity is alerted to the truths of Allah.
-
- ayatollah
- Arabic for "sign of God," a Shi'ite title of honor for the most prominent religious scholars in contemporary (20th century) Iran.
-
- baptism
- A Christian ritual understood to cleanse a person from sin and initiate them into Christian life and community, possibly originating in Jewish purification rituals.
-
- bishop
- A cleric who oversees the administration of a diocese, an administrative region of the church.
-
- caliphate
- Arabic for the office of the successor or deputy (khalifa)
of Muhammad.
-
- canon
- From the Greek word for measuring rod, this refers among
other meanings to the rule by which something was judged,
and particularly to the official list of books judged
to be authoritative scriptures by a given community. The
Protestant canon of the Old Testament
largely follows the Jewish canon. It is therefore smaller
than the Catholic canon, which includes several of the
extra books found in the early Greek translation of scripture,
the Septuagint (see Comparison
of Jewish and Christian Canons). The Eastern Orthodox
churches, which still use the actual Greek version of
the Old Testament, recognize all of the Septuagint's extra
books in their canon.
-
- catholic/Catholic
- "Universal." Capitalized, it refers to that Christian
church based in Rome and led by the Roman Catholic pope
and bishops.
-
- celibacy
- A state of abstention from sexual intercourse.
-
- charisma
- Greek for "grace, gift," understood in the New Testament
churches as one of several possible manifestations of
the presence of the Holy Spirit (e.g., wisdom, knowledge,
faith, healing, mighty deeds, prophecy, discernment of
spirits, tongues, interpretation of tongues; see 1 Cor
12:1-11).
-
- Christ
- See messiah.
-
- Christology
- The branch of Christian theology that explores the person,
nature, and function of Christ. High Christology emphasizes
the divinity of Christ; its heretical extreme is Docetism,
which argues that Jesus only appeared human but was in
reality completely divine. Low Christology emphasizes
the humanity of Christ; its heretical extreme is Arianism,
which argues that since God cannot be generated, and Jesus
was generated as a human, Jesus cannot be God.
-
- circumcision
- The removal of the foreskin of the penis in males, performed
ritually within Judaism eight days after the boy's birth
as a sign of the boy's participation in the covenant
between God and the Jewish people (Gen 17:9-14).
-
- Conservative Judaism
- One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism.
This movement attempts to balance the Reform
and Orthodox positions,
and considers itself the conservator of historical Judaism.
It is essentially an American phenomenon (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
-
- cosmology
- Greek for "study of the universe," any comprehensive
system of understanding and accounting for the universe
and its movements.
-
- covenant
- A covenant is an agreement between two parties. Covenants
in antiquity were diplomatic and economic in nature, much
as today, and the literary conventions of these ancient
covenants were used to portray the relationship between
God and Israel. There are several covenants in the Bible:
with Noah (Gen 9), with Abraham (Gen 15; 17), with Moses
(Exod 20), with David (2 Sam 7:8-17), and through Jesus
(Matt 26:26-30; 2 Cor 3:4-18).
-
- creed
- From the Latin credo, "I believe," a confession
of faith; in Christian tradition, any one of several prayers
that affirms basic Christian beliefs (some of the early Christian creeds are available online).
-
- Dead Sea Scrolls
- A group of over 800 manuscripts found between 1947 and
1956 in various caves on the northwestern shore of the
Dead Sea. The bulk of the manuscripts were discovered
in eleven caves near a (probable) Essene settlement at
Qumran, and include biblical, parabiblical, apocryphal
and sectarian writings as well as some documentary texts
(practice alphabets, deeds, contracts, letters).
-
- Deuteronomistic History
- A theological interpretation of the history of the people
Israel in their land, composed by the Deuteronomistic
scribes in Jerusalem as a religious explanation for and
justification of the reunification of Israel and Judah
by King Josiah (640–609 B.C.E.). It comprises
the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1–2 Samuel and
1–2 Kings, although Deuteronomist additions can be seen
throughout the Pentateuch and
earlier prophetic books (e.g., Amos 3:7). Central themes
are that observance of the law leads to possession of
the land, and that God warns the people through "his servants,
the prophets," if their sins jeopardize their safety.
-
- Deuteronomist Writers (D)
- Scribes in the court of King Josiah who composed the
Deuteronomistic History c.622 B.C.E.
"D" (of "Dtr") is, according to the Documentary
Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah
(Genesis–Deuteronomy).
-
- diaspora
- Greek for "dispersion," most commonly used of Jews living
outside the land of Israel anytime after the Babylonian
Exile, but also used by other groups (e.g., the Palestinians
in an ironic reference to their dispossession by Jews).
-
- din
- Religion and religious duties in Islam; also judgment.
There are five pillars of din:
witness, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage (see
Five Pillars of Islam). Medina, the city where Muhammad
first established a political system based on Islamic
law, literally means "the place of judgment."
-
- disciple
- Greek for "one who follows," a term used in scripture
for students of a master.
-
- discourse
- The literary critical term for structure and purpose
of a narrative or other literary work, which coexists
with the story told (events [actions,
plot] + elements [characters, space]). The level of discourse
is the more subtle level at which the author's judgment
and interpretation operate.
-
- divided monarchy
- The two monarchies of Israel (north) and Judah (south)
after the secession of the northern King Jeroboam I.
The northern kingdom lasted approximately 200 years, until
its defeat by Assyria (c.922-721 B.C.E.).
The southern kingdom lasted a bit longer until its defeat
by Babylon (c.922-587 B.C.E.; see
also united monarchy).
-
- Documentary Hypothesis
- The theory that seeks to explain the duplications and
contradictions within the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy)
by positing that four sources or traditions lie behind
these five books. The sources, "J" (for Yahwist),
"E" (Elohist), "D" (Deuteronomist),
and "P" (Priestly), emerge
in different parts of the country at different moments
in history, and thus reflect different perspectives (see the chart
online).
-
- Dome of the Rock
- The golden-domed mosque on Temple
Mount in Jerusalem that marks the third holiest site
in Islam, the site from which Muhammad ascended to heaven
on his "night journey" (surah 17). The site most
probably stands on the exact location of the Second Jewish
Temple, destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E.
(see Al-Aqsa, Haram
al-Sharif).
-
- ecstatic speech
- Speech uttered in a state of divine possession, in which the human being experiences inspiration or visions or transportation to a supernatural sphere that transcends the human; from the Greek "to stand apart from." This type of oracular speech is one of the characteristic activities of the prophet.
-
- Elohist Writers (E)
- Scribes writing in the northern Kingdom of Israel after its creation in 922 B.C.E. and emphasizing northern traditions in opposition to the southern emphasis of the Yahwists. This hypothetical group is so named because their texts use the Hebrew 'Elohim for God rather than the tetragrammaton ("Yahweh"). "E" is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
-
- epistle
- Greek for letter, an exhortation or written sermon intended for public reading.
-
- eschatology
- The branch of theology that is concerned with the ultimate or last things, such as the end of times, judgment, death, heaven, hell (from the Greek for furthest, uttermost, extreme, end, + logos = word[s]).
-
- eschaton
- Greek for "the end," the end of times which is regarded as immanent in apocalyptic literature.
-
- Essene
- A Jewish apocalyptic group associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls that lived from approximately 165 B.C.E.–68 C.E., when they were eradicated by the Romans. The Essenes advocated a return to Torah, and some among their number held property in common and advocated celibacy.
-
- eucharist
- From the Greek "to give thanks," a central Christian ritual recalling the Passover supper Jesus shared with his disciples the night before he died; also, the bread and wine understood by Catholics as consubstantial with Christ's body and blood offered for human salvation.
-
- evangelist
- Greek for "one who proclaims the good news" or gospel, understood in Christian tradition to apply particularly to the authors of the four canonical gospels.
-
- exegesis
- From Greek "to show the way," the interpretation of scriptural texts.
-
- exile
- The forced removal of the Judean elite to Babylon in the wake of the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 B.C.E., and the period of approximately 50 years during which these people lived in servitude in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
-
- exodus
- The exit or escape of Israel from Egyptian captivity, recounted in the book of the same name. The book in its final form dates eight centuries after the events it describes (story date c.1280 B.C.E.; discourse date c.400s B.C.E.) and was compiled from several sources, all of which factors complicate the historical reliability of the account. CSB Map #2 depicts the route(s) of the escape based on the Exodus account.
-
- fatwa
- Arabic for a formal legal opinion or decision, given by one so qualified, a mufti.
-
- Five Pillars of Islam
- The five religious duties in Islam: witness (shahadah), almsgiving (zakat), prayer five times a day accompanied by ritual prostrations (salat), fasting (saum and siyam), and pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). Also called the five pillars of din, or judgment.
-
- foil
- A secondary character or characters whose actions, by strong contrast, underscore or enhance the distinctive characteristics of another character.
-
- Gemara
- From the Hebrew "to complete, finish," an explanation and expansion of the Mishnah.
-
- Gentile
- A non-Jew; common Jewish term of reference in antiquity.
-
- gnosticism
- From the Greek for knowledge, any one of a number of dualistic ideologies popular particularly in mid- to late-antiquity that espoused a path of spiritual ascent through the secret, complex structures of the cosmos and away from the evil material world. (see Gnosticism: Resources for Study).
-
- gospel
- Old English term for good news (godspell), a translation of the Greek term for the same; a literary genre represented in the New Testament by four books (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) and in the New Testament apocrypha by sixteen other books. The canonical gospels tell the story of the public life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They were written between 65–100 C.E.
-
- hadith
- Arabic for traditions told about Muhammad after the compilation of the Qur'an. These traditions provide a second source for Islamic law and practice (available online).
-
- hafiz
- One who has memorized the entire Qur'an by heart.
-
- haggadah
- From the Hebrew, "to tell or declare"; Jewish tales, anecdotes, and other traditions about history or theology that appear in rabbinic literature like the Talmud and the midrashim. They are different from halakhic traditions, which concern legal and ritual matters. In the absolute sense, this term often refers to the retelling of the Exodus story during the Passover seder ritual.
-
- hajj
- The pilgrimage to Mecca enjoined on all Moslems as the fifth pillar of faith, and the ceremonies performed during the days of pilgrimage.
-
- halakah
- From the Hebrew word for "walk," the "way" or "procedure" for acting according to the biblical commandments and thus living an ethical life. As part of oral Torah, these traditions about legal and ritual matters appear in rabbinic literature, and are to be distinguished from haggadic traditions which concern historical or theological matters (see akhlaq, the Muslim equivalent).
-
- haram
- The sacred enclave in Mecca enclosing the Ka'bah, the focal point of the hajj.
-
- Haram al-Sharif
- Arabic for "the Noble Sanctuary," the Dome of the Rock mosque built on Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the third holiest site in Islam from which Muhammad ascended to heaven on his night journey (surah 17; see alsoAl-Aqsa).
-
- Hasidic Judaism
- A form of Judaism associated with messianic fervor and joyful prayer, this popular movement originated in eastern Europe in the 18th-19th centuries in opposition to the dominant academic, rabbinic form of discourse. It is now linked with Orthodox Judaism.
-
- Hasmoneans
- A dynastic family of priests who governed Judah and Israel in the wake of the Maccabean Revolt until the Roman conquest (152–63 B.C.E.).
-
- Hebrews
- One of the most ancient terms for the Israelites, used in Tanak almost exclusively of the patriarchs and other figures who lived before the united monarchy (c.1000 B.C.E.). The term may be related to the words apiru, habiru, used in near eastern documents in the second millennium B.C.E. to refer to a landless class of nomadic peoples and escaped slaves.
-
- Hellenism
- The graecized culture that spread throughout the Mediterranean world in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great (d.323 B.C.E.) and remained prominent during the period of Roman hegemony.
-
- heresy
- From the Greek "choice," in religious vocabulary a choice for a teaching about the faith which the dominant or orthodox church holds to be contrary to that faith.
-
- hermeneutics
- From the Greek "to interpret or explain," the science and methodology of interpretation.
-
- heterodoxy
- From the Greek "other or different opinion," any position that differs from accepted teaching (see also orthodoxy).
-
- Hijaz
- West central Arabia, where Islam first arose.
-
- hijrah
- The emigration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib in 622 C.E., the date on which the Moslem calendar begins.
-
- hypostasis
- Greek for "substance," the term used to describe the unity of the person of Jesus Christ in early Christological debate while accepting his two natures, divine and human (see Christology).
-
- ijtihad
- "Reasoned deduction," the principle by which laws established in the Qur'an or the Sunnah are adapted to new circumstances.
-
- imam
- In Sunni Islam, the leader of ritual prayer;
in Shi'a Islam, the successor and
heir to "the light of Muhammad."
-
- iman
- Arabic for "faith"; the doctrinal aspect of the Moslem faith, distinguished from ritual practices (Islam).
-
- incarnation
- The Christian belief that God became flesh (Latin in + carne) in Jesus of Nazareth.
-
- irony
- The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning; an expression marked by such a deliberate contrast between apparent and intended meaning; incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs.
-
- Islam
- Arabic for "submission," the act of faith and surrender which defines the praxis of Muslims. Also, the historic faith delivered through Muhammad and the ritual practice in contrast to the doctrinal system, iman.
-
- Israeli
- A resident of the contemporary State of Israel, particularly a citizen of that state (see also Hebrews, Israelite, Jew).
-
- Israelite
- An adherent of nascent Judaism during the period of the settlement and united monarchy (c.1200–922 B.C.E.). A citizen of the northern kingdom of Israel after it split off from the southern kingdom of Judah (922 B.C.E.) and until the destruction of Israel by the Assyrians in 721 B.C.E. Thereafter a metaphorical term for Jews (see also Hebrews, Israeli, Jew).
-
- jahiliyyah
- Arabic for the state of ignorance prior to the revelation of the Qur'an and the wildness associated with it. The term is also used by contemporary Muslims to identify unworthy, nominal Moslems.
-
- Jew
- An adherent of the Jewish faith, particularly after the exile of Judeans to Babylon (see also Hebrews, Israeli, Israelite).
-
- Jewish Temple
- The central place of worship and prayer in the biblical period. Solomon built a huge edifice in Jerusalem in the mid-10th century B.C.E. with the income from heavy taxes imposed on the people. When the nation split after his reign, it was partly because of this temple; northern Jews had their own shrines (Shechem, Bethel, Dan, Gilgal), and had always opposed centralized worship. The common people in both north and south also resisted centralized worship: archeologists have discovered scores of hilltop memorial shrines to ancestors, small temples to local fertility and astral deities, and remnants of household shrines. The Jerusalem temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587–586 B.C.E., rebuilt by during the restoration (see Ezra and Nehemiah), expanded by Herod the Great in 37–4 B.C.E., and destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. Much of biblical law treats the laws of worship and cultic sacrifices that took place in the Temple (thanksgiving, atonement, free-will offerings).
-
- jihad
- Arabic for the struggle in the path of Allah. Its primary meaning is the inward discipline in pursuit of well-being and prosperity; only secondarily does it have the meaning of a struggle for or defense of Islam. Some Moslems consider the call to jihad to be a sixth pillar, but it does not officially have that status.
-
- jinn
- Invisible demons and spirits, some malevolent, some benevolent to humans, capable of shifting shape and thus becoming visible to humans.
-
- juz'
- One of thirty sections of the Qur'an, so divided to facilitate memorization and recitation of the entire Qur'an in one month's time.
-
- Ka'bah
- The cube-shaped stone shrine at the center of the great mosque in Mecca around which pilgrims in the hajj circulate in ritual ceremonies. The focal point of all Moslem prayer, linked with Adam and Abraham (particularly his near sacrifice of Ishmael). In pre-Islamic Arabia a center of worship to pagan tribal gods, cleansed of idols by Muhammad when he defeated the Quraysh in 630 C.E.
-
- kabbalah
- Hebrew for "tradition," specifically the medieval Spanish tradition of Jewish mysticism.
-
- kashrut
- The system of Jewish dietary regulations that includes prohibitions against certain foods such as pork and certain food combinations, such as meat and dairy (Lev 7:22-27; 11).
-
- Levite
- A member of the Israelite clan charged with responsibility for Israel's worship. The Levites traditionally owned no land, but took turns at Temple service and derived their income from the offerings of money and food brought there. The Levites' cultic functions included receiving and storing offerings, preparing the daily sacrifices, and singing and instrumental accompaniment.
-
- liturgy
- Greek for "a work of the people," originally a public service performed at an individual's expense; later worship services in general.
-
- logos
- Greek for "word," a term that came to be applied particularly to Jesus Christ as the divine Word made flesh.
-
- Maccabean Revolt
- A Jewish revolt led by Judas Maccabbeus (= "the Hammer") and his family against the Hellenizing reforms of the Seleucid King Antiochus IV (175-152 B.C.E.). Antiochus' persecution of the Jews and their way of life prompted the composition of the apocalyptic Book of Daniel.
-
- martyr
- Greek for "witness," the standard legal term for observers at the execution of economic transactions, legal affairs, and everyday events. The term came to have the specialized meaning of "one who testifies to the faith" in Jewish and Christian circles during the persecutions of 200 B.C.E.–200 C.E. (the period when apocalyptic literature flourished).
-
- Mecca
- The holiest city in Islam, due to the sacred enclosure of the Ka'bah in its center to which Moslems make pilgrimage (hajj). Muhammad was born in Mecca and struggled with its leading families for years before migrating to Medina, establishing an Islamic community, and defeating the Meccans from there.
-
- Medina
- Originally a city in Saudi Arabia named Yathrib, to which Muhammad migrated in the hijrah, 622 C.E. = 1 A.H. The first place where Islamic law and community were established (Medina means "place of judgment").
-
- messiah
- Hebrew for "anointed one," a kingly, prophetic, or priestly figure envisioned during and after the Babylonian exile as savior of the Jewish people who would restore their political/religious autonomy. Applied by Christians to Jesus ("Christ" is the Greek equivalent of "messiah") and by Jews throughout history to a handful of leaders (e.g., Simon bar Kokhba, 132–135 C.E., Shabbatai Zevi, 1626–1676 C.E.).
-
- midrash
- From the Hebrew "to interpret, to explain," the halakhic or haggadic traditions transmitted as an explanation or commentary on a biblical verse. There are separate volumes of midrashim for each of the biblical books.
-
- mihrab
- A niche in the wall of a mosque indicating the qiblah, or direction of prayer.
-
- millennialism
- A Christian belief in the literal thousand-year period of peace and well-being in the end times associated with the reign of Christ and the binding of Satan, based on Revelation 20:1-5. Various Christian groups debate whether Christ's coming will inaugurate the thousand-year reign (premillennialists) or conclude it (postmillennialists; the first coming was the one that the New Testament recounts). Still other Christians do not take the thousand-year reign literally (amillennialists).
-
- minaret
- The English derivative of Arabic manara, or lighthouse, the tower associated with a mosque from which the adhan is chanted five times a day.
-
- mi'raj
- Muhammad's vision of his night journey to Temple Mount in Jerusalem and from there through the heavens (surah 17).
-
- Mishnah
- From the Hebrew "to repeat, do again," this refers to the "repetition" or "second version" of the law, that is, a collection of legal and procedural interpretations of the law codified by the rabbinic academy of Yavneh c.200 C.E. It includes some haggadic material as well.
-
- mosque
- The Moslem assembly place for communal prayer.
-
- motif
- A topos or element—a type of incident, device, or formula—which recurs frequently in a work.
-
- Mount Moriah
- The traditional mountain where Abraham nearly sacrificed his son Isaac (Gen 22), also considered in Jewish tradition to be the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.
-
- muezzin
- Arabic mu'adhdhin, the crier who calls Muslims to prayer by means of the adhan.
-
- mufti
- A qualified Muslim legal expert or consultant.
-
- New Testament
- The Christian name for the Christian scriptures, that
is, for the revelation about Jesus Christ. The term "testament"
means something that testifies or witnesses to something;
in this case the scriptures attest to God's relationship
with the new Israel, those who believe in the Christ.
The shape and number of books in the New Testament differ
among the major Christian denominations (see the online chart).
-
- New Testament Apocrypha
- Greek for "hidden," books of Christian pious literature
that are not in the Christian canon (available online).
-
- numerology
- The study of the supernatural power of numbers and their
influence over human affairs.
-
- Old Testament
- The Christian name for the Jewish Bible, that is, for
the revelation that predates Jesus Christ. The term "testament"
means something that testifies or witnesses to something;
in this case the scriptures attest to God's relationship
with Israel. The shape and number of books in the Christian
Old Testament differ somewhat from the Jewish canon (see the online chart).
-
- Old Testament Apocrypha
- From Greek for "hidden," works that were included in
the Greek version of Tanak (the Septuagint)
but were not included in the Jewish canon.
Because these books were in the Septuagint, they came
into Christian Bibles. Many or all are considered canonical
by Catholics and eastern churches, while they are considered
"deuterocanonical" or simply as pious literature by Protestants
(available online).
-
- Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
- From Greek for "false writing," works written by later
authors in the name of earlier biblical figures (available
online).
-
- oracle
- From the Latin orare, to speak or pray, a statement
or prophecy uttered at a cultic shrine through a recognized
intermediary (prophet, priest, shaman), often in
the form of an enigmatic statement or allegory.
-
- oral Torah
- See Torah.
-
- Orthodox Judaism
- One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism
which began in response to the rise of Reform
Judaism after the enlightenment (19th century). Reform
Judaism had sought to reduce the emphasis on law in favor
of the spirit of Judaism; Orthodox Judaism responded by
emphasizing anew the importance of the law (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
-
- orthodoxy
- From the Greek "straight opinion," the accepted or dominant
teaching or position (see also heterodoxy).
-
- passover
- The event related in Exodus 12 whereby God delivers the Israelites from captivity in Egypt by passing over their houses and slaying the first-born sons of the Egyptians. Also, the annual ritual recalling this event, and particularly the supper of symbolic foods during which the story of Exodus is retold.
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- Pentateuch
- Literally "five jars/scrolls," this is the Greek term for the first five books of the Jewish Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), known in Hebrew as the Torah or instruction. Scholars now believe that the first four of these books were compiled over centuries from and by four different traditions, the Yahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist (responsible for the entire book of Deuteronomy as well), and the Priestly (see Documentary Hypothesis, and two
online charts, The
Documentary Hypothesis and The
Deuteronomistic History).
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- Pharisees
- A group of Jews who lived in the late Second Temple period and advocated a democratization of Jewish ritual law so that the common people could partake in the sanctification that priests enjoyed. The Pharisees believed not only in written Torah, but in their own interpretation of that instruction (oral Torah). Their oral Torah included the extension of laws for priestly separation to lay people, as well as a belief in resurrection from the dead.
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- pilgrimage
- A journey to a sacred site or shrine.
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- Pillars of Islam
- See Five Pillars of Islam.
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- pope
- Latin for "father," this refers to the leading bishop of certain Christian denominations (e.g., Roman Catholic Church, Coptic Church).
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- Priestly Writers (P)
- Scribes writing in the Jerusalem before and especially after the exile (after 539 B.C.E.). This hypothetical group is so named because their texts are concerned for rituals and cultic legal matters. "P" is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
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- prophet
- A prophet is a religious functionary set aside or specially appointed by (a) god for a number of religious and political tasks.
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- Protestantism
- Term applied to a variety of churches that broke with Roman Catholicism in the sixteenth century over issues such as the authoritative interpretation of scripture, church authority in general, and religious practice.
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- pseudonymity
- From the Greek for "false name," the authorial stance of assuming the identity of a more famous figure in whose tradition one wishes to write; a common and accepted practice in antiquity, though today considered plagiarism.
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- "Q" (Quelle)
- Abbreviation for the German "Quelle," or source; a hypothetical source for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke that contained the material they share word-for-word that is not in one of their other sources, the Gospel of Mark; it consists mostly of sayings of Jesus (see synoptic problem, Two Source Hypothesis).
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- qiblah
- The direction toward which Muslims face during the salat-prayer; originally Jerusalem, but after the hijrah, Mecca; marked in mosques by the mihrab.
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- Qur'an
- The Arabic word for "recitation" or "reading," this term refers specifically to the revelations received by Muhammad between 609–632 C.E. and codified by his followers between 644–656 C.E. These revelations are the sacred scriptures of Islam.
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- rabbi
- Hebrew for "my great one, master, my teacher," a qualified
teacher of oral and written Torah.
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- Rabbinic Judaism
- A form of Judaism in which Rabbis or teachers govern
the authoritative interpretation of written and oral Torah,
particularly in halakhic (legal,
ethical) matters. After the destruction of the Second
Temple and the consequent obsolescence of the priesthood,
rabbinic Judaism emerged
as the dominant (though not the only) form of Judaism,
and continues as such to the present day (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
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- rak'a
- A cycle of postures during the salat-prayer:
standing, bowing, prostrating, sitting.
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- Ramadan
- The month during which the Qur'an was first revealed,
commemorated annually by Moslems with an obligatory fast
during daylight hours (saum,
the fourth pillar of Islam).
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- Reconstructionist Judaism
- One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism.
This group split from Conservative
Judaism in New York in 1935. Under the impression
that Conservative Jews sought only to preserve historical
Judaism, the Reconstructionists sought to preserve the
culture of Judaism as well (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
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- redaction
- The activity of collecting, arranging, editing and modifying
sources to adapt their message to new circumstances and
the redactor's theological perspective.
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- redaction criticism
- The study of the theological perspective of a biblical
text evident in its collection, arrangement, editing and
modification of sources.
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- Reform Judaism
- One of five main movements within contemporary Judaism.
Influenced by enlightenment rationalism (18th century),
this group sought to reduce the emphasis on the particular
Jewish law in favor of the more universal spirit of Judaism (see Chronology and
Major Branches of Judaism).
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- restoration
- The period of return from Babylonian
exile and reconstruction of Judean society (539–c.450
B.C.E.), reflected in the Bible in the
work of the Chronicler (1–2
Chr; Ezra–Nehemiah).
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- Roman Catholicism
- A post sixteenth-century C.E. designation
for the Christian church that follows the Bishop of Rome.
Seven Christian denominations using an Eastern rite for
their liturgy rather than the Latin (western) rite are
in union with Rome, although they are not "Roman" Catholic;
these are the Armenian, Byzantine, Coptic, Ethiopian,
East Syrian (Chaldean) West Syrian, and Maronite Catholic
Churches.
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- Sadducee
- A member of the priestly family descended from Zadok, one of two high priestly families under King David; the chief priestly family in the Jerusalem Temple from the time of Solomon to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., and one of the chief ruling parties in Jerusalem from the time of the Hasmonean dynasty (146 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.). The ancient Jewish historian Josephus describes them as religious conservatives who rejected any teachings outside of the Torah, such as resurrection from the dead, life after death, and the existence of angels (see Chronology and Major Branches of Judaism.
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- salat
- The ritual prayer of Islam with prostrations, practiced five times a day; one of the five pillars of Islam.
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- Samaritans
- Demographically a group of people who lived in the former northern kingdom of Israel, centered around the ancient capital of Samaria, who after the Assyrian destruction and exile (721 B.C.E.) had remained and intermarried with the non-Israelite peoples transported to the region by Assyria. Religio-politically, a conservative Jewish group that maintained the ancient paleo-Hebrew script for their sacred writings (as opposed to the square script introduced by foreign powers during Assyrian and Babylonian hegemony), and, more importantly, who recognized only the Torah as legitimate scripture (as opposed to Judean Jews, who had expanded scripture to include the prophets and the writings). The Samaritans have maintained their own temple and cult of Jewish festivals on Mount Gerizim near Shechem from the late fourth century B.C.E. to the present day.
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- saum
- The fast during the month of Ramadan, part of the fourth pillar of Islam (see also siyam).
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- scripture
- Literally, "a writing"; a written tradition vested with authority by a community because it is understood to be sacred, holy, God-given.
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- second coming
- Also referred to by its Greek equivalent, parousia (being alongside, presence), the belief present in every strand of New Testament tradition that Christ will return in the future to establish fully the messianic reign.
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- Second Temple Judaism
- Judaism(s) during the period from the restoration to the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans, c.539 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.
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- Seleucids
- A Syrian Hellenistic dynasty that controlled Palestine from approximately 200 C.E. until the Hasmonean or Maccabean Revolt of 175–152 B.C.E. The dynasty's attempts to enforce Hellenization at the cost of Jewish law and tradition was the catalyst both for the Revolt and for the composition of the Book of Daniel, and seems to have played a role in the genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls community.
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- Sephardic Jews
- Geographic/cultural designation for Jews of Spanish origin living in southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East (see also Ashkenazik Jews).
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- Septuagint
- From the Latin for seventy (septem [7] + ginta [decimal suffix]), therefore abbreviated LXX, this is the name for the main ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible with some additional books, undertaken by Jews living in Egypt sometime after 250 B.C.E. This was the premier version used by early Greek-speaking Christians, and so became the basis of the Christian canon. The name "seventy" derives from a tradition that Ptolemy II (285–247 B.C.E.) commissioned 70 or 72 elders to prepare the translation, a task they accomplished in a miraculous 72 days.
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- shahadah
- From the Arabic for "witnessing," the act of confessing faith in God alone and in Muhammad his prophet ("There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet").
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- shahid
- Arabic for witness, the equivalent of the Greek "martyr."
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- Shari'a
- The corpus of divinely revealed Islamic legislation, based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
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- Shema
- Hebrew imperative "Hear," the name for the twice-daily Jewish prayer of adherence to the Mosaic covenant, drawn from Deut 6:4-9; 11:13-21 and Num 16:37-41.
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- Shi'a Islam
- From the Arabic shi'a, "party," the followers of Ali who became the main minority community in Islam; they believe that leadership within Islam should be based on the descendants of Muhammad through the line of Ali and Fatima. One country in which Shi'ites form the majority is Iran.
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- shirk
- The supreme sin of idolatry in Islam.
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- siyam
- Fasting, the fourth pillar of Islam (see also saum).
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- source criticism
- The identification and study of the different sources that lie behind a text. Two famous source-critical hypotheses are the Documentary Hypothesis (Torah) and the Two Source Hypothesis (Gospels).
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- story
- The literary critical term for the story told — that is, the events (actions, plot) and elements (characters, space) of a story. The story level is distinguished from the level of discourse, which is the structure of the story and the author's purpose in telling it.
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- Sufism
- The mystical tradition within Islam, theoretically not restricted to Sunni or Shi'a. In reality its practitioners are sometimes regarded as a separate group within Islam.
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- Sunnah
- The path or way followed by the faithful, also the custom of the prophet Muhammad (see also Sunni Islam).
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- Sunni Islam
- The majority group within Islam, "the people of the [Prophet's] path or way" (see also Sunnah).
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- surah
- Arabic for "step" (see surah 3:3); a chapter of the Qur'an.
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- synagogue
- From the Greek "to bring or gather together" and thus "community," the organized Jewish communities of the Hellenistic world and their places of worship.
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- synoptic gospels
- From the Greek "with one eye," the three gospels that tell the story of Jesus in largely the same way, sometimes with passages that are identical word-for-word. These three gospels are Matthew, Mark and Luke.
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- synoptic problem
- The observation that, while the three synoptic gospels share much material word-for-word, they are also significantly different. The most accepted theories to account for this problem are 1) the primacy of Mark; and 2) the Two Source Hypothesis (see "Q" [Quelle]).
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- Talmud
- From the Hebrew "to learn, study," the compilation of
Mishnah, Gemara,
and further rabbinic discussion
of halakah and haggadah.
There are two Talmuds, one compiled in Palestine during
the 300s C.E. (the Palestinian or Jerusalem
Talmud, in Hebrew Talmud Yerushalmi), and a more
comprehensive work compiled in the Babylonian academies
from 400–600 C.E. (the Babylonian Talmud,
in Hebrew Talmud Bavli).
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- Talmud Torah
- Hebrew for "the study of Torah,"
this refers to the instruction, discussion and debate
over the interpretation of Torah that occurs in Jewish
and rabbinic schools.
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- Tanak
- The Jewish name for their scriptures; an acronym in
which each of the consonants represents one of the three
major divisions of the Jewish Bible: "T" for Torah
or instruction, law (including the biblical books from
Genesis to Deuteronomy), "N" for Nevi'im or prophets (Joshua–Malachi),
and "K" for Ketuvim or writings (Psalms–2 Chronicles).
The shape and number of books in the Jewish Bible differ
somewhat from Christian canon
; a complete chart
of the similarities and differences is available online.
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- tanzil
- The incremental "sending down" of the Qur'an to the
prophet Muhammad (see surah 3:3).
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- Temple Mount
- The artificial platform enlarged by King Herod (37–4
B.C.E.) to accommodate a refurbished Second
Temple. The natural elevation with valleys on its
eastern, southern, and western sides was enlarged by extending
retaining walls on these sides and filling them with earth
to create a level platform 30 football fields in area.
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- tetragrammaton
- Greek for "four letters," the divine name in Hebrew.
The four Hebrew consonants for the divine name are not
pronounced by Jews when they occur in the biblical text.
Instead, circumlocutions like "Lord" or "the Name" are
used.
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- theme
- A concept or teaching which a work is designed to emphasize
and make persuasive to the reader.
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- theodicy
- From the Greek "justice of God" or "justifying God,"
the problem of and attempt to explain the existence of
evil and suffering alongside the assertion of a just and
loving God.
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- theology
- From the Greek "words about God," the science or study
of God.
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- Torah
- The Hebrew word for instruction, this term designates
in its narrowest sense the first five books of the Jewish
Bible (Genesis to Deuteronomy), and in its broadest sense
authoritative teaching of whatever source. Rabbinic
tradition distinguishes between God's revealed instruction
disclosed preeminently in scripture (the written Torah)
and the subsequent interpretive tradition of that revelation
(oral Torah, some of which has been compiled in written
sources like the Mishnah, the Gemara,
the Talmud, etc.).
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- Trinity
- The Godhead in Christian belief, one God revealed in
three persons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
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- Two Source Hypothesis
- The theory that the authors of Matthew and Luke used
two shared sources for their gospels,
the Gospel of Mark and ""Q" (sayings
of Jesus), in addition to their own unique material. The
theory is one way of accounting for the synoptic
problem.
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- ummah
- The Muslim community or nation in their unity beyond any tribal or national affiliations, that is, the worldwide community that submits to Islam.
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- Umm al-Kitab
- Arabic for "the mother of the book," the eternal counterpart of the written, earthly Qur'an.
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- united monarchy
- The monarchy of a united Israel under Kings David and Solomon (c.1000-922 B.C.E.; see also divided monarchy).
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- wahy
- The state of inspiration in which revelations came to Muhammad.
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- Western Wall
- The western retaining wall of Temple Mount in Jerusalem, built by Herod the Great (37–4 B.C.E.). Because it was for centuries one of the few remaining visible vestiges of the Jewish Temple, it was and is a revered center for Jewish pilgrimage.
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- written Torah
- See Torah.
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- Yahwist Writers (J)
- Scribes writing in the southern Kingdom of Judah during and after the united monarchy (1000–922 B.C.E.) and emphasizing southern traditions such as the centrality of Jerusalem. This hypothetical group is so named because their texts use the tetragrammaton for God's name ("Yahweh") rather than the Hebrew 'Elohim found in the Elohist source. "J" (because the German scholar who developed this theory referred to the group with the German name "Jahwist") is, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, one of the four main sources of the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy).
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- yeshiva
- From Hebrew "sitting," a Jewish religious academy.
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- zakat
- Almsgiving in Islam, the third pillar of Islam.
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- zealot
- A Jew committed to rebellion and guerrilla warfare or terrorist activity against the Romans, c.63 B.C.E.–70 C.E.
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- Zion
- Another name for Jerusalem, used most often in poetic literature like the Psalms.
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- Zionism
- A modern movement of Jewish national self-determination, founded by European Jews in the last decades of the nineteenth century in response to the rise of nationalism in Europe and the persistence of anti-Semitism even after the Enlightenment and the consequent legal emancipation of Jews. With the Holocaust and the U.N. creation of the State of Israel in 1947–1948, the Zionist vision became reality.
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- Zionist
- An advocate of Zionism. Also, a derogatory term synonymous with "Israeli" used by some Arabs; it implies the wrongful presence of Israel in Arab land.
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